托福真题2014-08-16Reading内部欧亚大陆的打猎和定居+手写记录+海洋生物

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2024年3月5日发(作者：)

Hunting and the Setting of Inner Eurasia

Words & Phrases

1. Inner Eurasia：内部的欧亚大陆

Eurasia=Europe+Asia

2. refer to：指的是

3. systematic colonization of parts of Inner Eurasia：内部欧亚大陆部分地区的系统性的人类移民定居

colonization：指移民定居=settlement

4.

The long, cold, arid winters of this region’s steppes (grass covered plains)

posed two distinctive problems for human settlers.

Arid：adj. 干旱的

Semiarid： adj. 半干旱的

Posed two distinctive problems: 构成两个不同的难题

Pose：v. 提出，造成(威胁、问题)=present

Distinctive：adj. 与众不同的，独特的

5. Presumably their ability to scavenge animal carcasses meant that they could

use skins or furs for warmth.

Presumably：adv. 据推测地

Presume=assume： v. 推测

Scavenge：捡破烂;拾荒;(从废弃物中)觅食，寻找 If people or animals scavenge

for things, they collect them by searching among waste or unwanted objects.

Carcass: n. 动物的尸体残骸A carcass is the body of a dead animal

6. However, there are no signs of hearths before about 200,000 years ago.

Hearth：n. 灶台，火炉

7. This suggests that humans used fire opportunistically and had not yet

domesticated it enough to survive the harsh winters of Ice Age Inner Eurasia.

Domesticate：v. 驯养，驯服

Dome：n. 圆屋顶

区别：dominate：v. 统治，主导

Harsh winters：严酷的冬天

8. trickier problem：棘手的问题，难以解决的问题

9. Humans could not exploit the abundant grasses of the steppes, and most of

the edible plants died off in winter.

Exploit：v. 开发利用=utilize=make use of

Steppe: 干草原

The edible plants: 可食的植物

10. Animals, unlike plants, can evade predators and may even fight back.

Evade predators：躲避捕猎者

衍生：inevitable：adj. 不可躲避的，不可避免的=unavoidable

11. hunting gear: 打猎装备

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12.

13.

14.

15.

the choice of companions：伙伴的选择

the maintenance of communications with neighbors：与邻居交流联系的维持

fatal： adj. 致命的=deadly

clarify group identity：表明群体身份

16. Internally, groups may split for long periods as hunting parties travelling over

great distances.

Internally：adv. 从内在来看

Split：v. 分裂

17. All in all, each group has to exist and survive in several distinct configurations.

Configuration：n.安排;格局;布局 A configuration is an arrangement of a group

of things

Syntax

1. According to the formulation of archaeologist Lewis Binford, in a

typical hunter/collector food-gathering strategy parties of hunters

leave camps with very specific goals in mind, based on intimate

knowledge of their intended prey.

Formulation：n.(政策、计划等的)制定，构想 The formulation of

something such as a policy or plan is the process of creating or

inventing it.

Intimate: adj.深刻的;详尽的;精通的 An intimate knowledge of

something is a deep and detailed knowledge of it

2. They may by away for days or weeks at a time and will often store

their kill at specific storage sites, from which they will bring food back

to a base camp when needed.

3. As a result, they move their base camps less often than in forager

societies, but they range more widely, their movements are more

carefully planned, and so are their methods of storage.

Base camp: 基地，相对于summer camp等季节性营地

Forager：n. 搜寻草料觅食者

Range：v. 搜索，延伸

4. They need reliable information about the movements and habits of

animal prey over large areas, which can be secured only by

maintaining regular contacts with neighboring groups.

5. Finally, they need reliable methods of storage because, where plant

foods cannot provide a dietary safety net, planning has to be

precise and detailed to ensure that there is enough to tide them

over in periods of shortage.

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Precise：adj. 精准的=exact

Tide over: 渡过难关

tide: n. 海浪；v. 顺应潮水航行

6. The regular exchange of information and sometimes of material

goods is critical not only within groups, but also between groups

scattered over large distances.

Critical：adj. 重要的

7. For these reasons, archaeologist Clive Gamble has argued that the

difficulties of settling the Eurasian heartland arose less from the

technological than from the social and organizational features of

human communities before 120,000 years ago.

Heartland：n. 心脏地带，中心区域

Human community=human society 人类社会

8. Nor is there any physical evidence for storage, raw materials all

come from within a radius of 50 kilometers—and usually less than 5

kilometers—of the sites where they were used.

physical evidence：有形的证据=concrete evidence

raw materials：原材料

Abstract → Concrete

1. The long, cold, arid winters of this region’s steppes (grass covered

plains) poised two distinctive problems for human settlers.

2. Systematic and reliable hunting methods meant more than the

development of new technologies, they also demanded new social

structures.

3. Hunting strategies also imply greater social complexity.

Written Records

Words & Phrases

1. appropriate texts: 恰当的文本记录

appropriate：adj. Something that is appropriate is suitable or

acceptable for a particular situation.

2. Many of the early excavations of the great sites of the Near East

had the recovery of clay writing tablets as the main goal.

Excavation: n. 挖掘=unearthing

3

Recovery：n. 收回；取回；失而复得 You talk about the recovery

of something when you get it back after it has been lost or stolen

clay writing tablets: 粘土写字板

3. it is mainly official decrees inscribed on marble that have survived

official decrees inscribed on marble: 刻在大理石上的官方法令

decree：n. A decree is an official order or decision, especially one

made by the ruler of a country

inscribe: v. 刻;雕 If you inscribe words on an object, you write or

carve the words on the object

marble: n. 大理石

4. We can now also begin to deduce the likely territories belonging to

individual Maya centers.

Deduce：v. 推断

Territory：n. 领土

5. But one should not accept them uncritically at face value.

Uncritically：adv. 不加批评地，不加鉴别地

区别于：

critical：最常见的意思是“重要的”，也有“批判的”意思

crucial：只有“重要的”意思

at face value: 按照表面意思;(对…)信以为真 If you take something at

face value, you accept it and believe it without thinking about it

very much, even though it might be untrue

6. historians tend to think of a king as the leader of a state society

tend to: 倾向于

think of…as: 把…看作为= see …as = view…as= regard…as

state society: 国家社会，区别于以往未形成国家的社会

7. a full state society did not emerge

emerge：v. 出现

emergence：n. 出现

emergency：n. 紧急事件的出现，急诊

反义词：immerse：v. 浸没，陷入

Syntax：

1. Major finds of this kind are still being made—for example, at the

ancient city of Ebla (Tell Mardikh) in Syria, where an archive of 5,000

clay tablets written in an early dialect of Akkadian (Babylonian) was

discovered in the 1970s.

Archive: n. 档案;史料;记录;档案馆 The archive or archives are a

collection of documents and records that contain historical

information. You can also use archives to refer to the place where

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archives are stored

Dialect：n. 方言

Babylonian：n. 巴比伦人（了解即可）

2. For instance, the clay tablets of Mycenaean Greece, dating from

around 1200 B.C., were all, without exception, primarily records of

commercial transactions (goods coming in or going out) at the

Mycenaean palaces.

(插入语割裂，逗号前后要连起来读)

Transaction：n. (一笔)交易;业务 A transaction is a piece of business,

for example an act of buying or selling something

8. This discovery gives us an impression of many aspects of the

Mycenaean economy and a glimpse into craft organization

(through the names for the different kinds of craftspeople, as well as

introducing the names of the offices of state).

（并列对象的确定）

Aspect：n. 方面

spect：词根，看的意思，a + spect=八面玲珑中的一面，方面

prospect：向前看，所以是“n.前景，前途，预期”的意思

inspect：向里看，所以是“v.检查”的意思

retrospect：向回看，所以是“n./v. 回顾回想”的意思

a glimpse into：一瞥，看一眼

glimpse：n./v. 一瞥，一看

craft organization: 工艺组织

craft：n.手艺;工艺 A craft is an activity such as weaving, carving, or

pottery that involves making things skilfully with your hands

craftman=artisan 手工艺人，工匠

9. It could be that the Mycenaeans wrote on clay only for their

commercial records and used other perishable materials for literary

or historical texts now lost to us.

（记住介词的基本意思，to = toward表朝向）

Lost to us：朝向我们来说是失去的，即我们无法得到

指前面的historical texts现在lost to us

Perishable：adj. 易腐烂的； 易腐败的； 易毁灭的

10. Fragile rolls of papyrus—the predecessor of modern paper—with

literary texts on them, have usually remained intact only when

retained in the dry air of Egypt, or when buried beneath the

volcanic ash covering Pompeii

（记住介词的基本意思，with 表伴随）

Fragile rolls of papyrus：脆弱的莎草纸卷轴

Predecessor：n. 前身

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remained intact：仍然完好无损

intact：adj. 完整无缺的，未受破坏的 Something that is intact is

complete and has not been damaged or changed 考过词汇题=whole

retained in the dry air：被保留在干燥空气中

retain：v. 保留

buried beneath the volcanic ash：被埋在火山灰下

11. Coins also provide a valuable source of written records: they can

reveal information about the location where they are found, which

can provide evidence about trade practices there, and their

inscriptions can be informative about the issuing authority, whether

they were city-states (as in ancient Greece) or sole rulers (as in

Imperial Rome or in the kingdoms of medieval Europe).

（1）逗号之后的which，修饰指代对象的确定，此时的which可以指代前面整句话（2）and并列对象/级别的确定

trade practices：贸易行为

inscriptions：n. 碑文，题刻

informative：adj. 提供信息的

issuing authority：发行当局

city-states：城邦国家（多个城市联邦国家）

sole rulers：单一统治者

medieval Europe：中世纪的欧洲

12. It had been widely assumed that the inscriptions were exclusively of

a calendrical nature or that they dealt with purely religious matters,

notably the deeds of the gods.

Be+prep. 构成谓语， Be of: 意为“属于”

Or that并列对象的确定：与前面的that并列

widely assumed：被广泛推测认为

exclusively of a calendrical nature：只属于一种历法的属性/性质

deal with：处理，涉及

deal的过去式是dealt

notably：adv. 尤其地，显著地

deeds of the gods：神的行为

13. Therefore, when the earliest records for Anglo-Saxon England, found

in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which took final shape in about A.D.

1155, refer to kings around A.D. 500, it is easy for the historian to think

of kings and states at that period.

以逗号隔开引入的插入语

Which修饰对象的确定

看到谓语想主语，主语在很遥远的前方

Took final shape: 最终成型

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Refer to：提及，指的是

Abstract → Concrete

1.

Paragraph 2 In each early literate society, writing had its own

function and purpose.

段首主题句中的抽象概念往后找具体对应

Literate society：识字社会，有读写能力的社会

2. But here, as in other cases, accidents of preservation may be

important.

3. Maya history has thus taken on a new dimension.

段尾总结句中的抽象概念往前找对应

Take on a new dimension: 呈现出一个新的维度

Take on：呈现

Dimension：n. 维度，角度，方面 A particular dimension of something

is a particular aspect of it

3D= 3 dimension 三维

3-dimension film ：3D电影

4. Nor should one forget the bias introduced by the accidents of

preservation and the particular uses of literacy in a society.

理解标黄单词抽象意义的具体指代

Bias：n. 偏见，误解

Literacy：n. 文字

5. The great risk with historical records is that they can impose their

own perspective so that they begin not only to supply the answers

to our questions but subtly to determine the nature of those

questions and even our concepts and terminology.

理解标黄单词抽象意义的具体指代

Impose their own perspective：施加他们自己的观点

Perspective：n. 看问题的角度，观点

So that：conj. 结果

Subtly：adv. 微妙地

The nature of those questions: 问题得性质

Concept：n. 概念，理解=understanding，idea

Terminology：n. 专门术语，概念

来自term概念的意思

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Temperature Regulation in Marine Organisms

Words & Phrases

1. Most birds have a body temperature of about 40℃, whereas the

temperature of most marine mammals is about 38℃.

Whereas：conj. 表比较=while

2. All subtidal marine invertebrates and most fishes fit into this

category.

Subtidal marine invertebrates：下潮区的海洋无脊椎动物

衍生：intertidal：adj. 潮间区的，即处在涨潮海水覆盖和落潮陆地暴露之间的区域； 而subtidal永远处在潮下面的区域，来自词根sub，下面的意思，如subway

Vertebrate：脊椎动物

Fit into: 适合

3. Their rise in temperature above ambient conditions stems from

metabolic heat generated by muscular activity (swimming)

combined with a heat retention mechanism.

Ambient condition：周边的状况

Stem from：来自=arise from=come from

Metabolic heat：新陈代谢的热量

Metabolism：n. 新陈代谢

Combine with：与…结合

A heat retention mechanism: 一个热量保留机制

Retention：n. 保留 The retention of something is the keeping of it

Retain：v. 保留

反义词：drain：v. 流失

Brain drain：人才流失，智囊流失

Mechanism：n. 原理，机制；方法

4. sustained activity：持续进行的活动

sustained=continued

5. using both evaporation and circulation of body fluids to avoid being

heated at low tide by the Sun

evaporation and circulation of body fluids：体液的蒸发和循环

evaporation：n. 蒸发 vapor：n. 水蒸气

区别：transpiration：n. (植物的)蒸腾作用

Body fluids：体液

6. absorb and lose heat directly to the air：直接朝向空气吸热和失热

absorb：v. 吸收

to=toward，表朝向

7. variation in color can reflect differences in adaptation to the

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capture of solar energy at different latitudes

variation in color：色彩差异

reflect：v. 反映；反射

adaptation to：朝向…的适应性

capture of solar energy：太阳能量的捕获

latitudes：n. 纬度

区别：longitude：经度

altitude：海拔高度

8. direct conduct of heat from the skin to the contacting colder water

direct conduct of heat：热的直接传导

conduct：n. 传导；行为举止

contacting colder water：接触的冷水

9. circulatory system：循环系统

10. heat loss from the body surface also occurs as warm interior blood is

transferred and moves into contact with the periphery of the body

warm interior blood：温暖的内部血液

interior：adj. 内部的

exterior：adj. 外部的

transferred：v.转移，转学

区别：transform：v. 变形，转变；

transport：v. 运输

contact：n. 接触

periphery: 边缘；周围；外围 If something is on the periphery of an

area, place, or thing, it is on the edge of it

11. Their bodies also radiate heat, usually in the infrared part of the

spectrum.

radiate heat: 辐射热量

infrared：n. 远红外线

spectrum：n. 谱线，光谱

12. as animals exhale, the resulting evaporation of water involves a

considerable loss of heat

exhale：v. 出气，呼出气

反义：inhale：v. 吸气

Considerable：adj. 极大量的=substantial=significant=a large number

of

13. A series of interlocking contour feathers encloses a thick layer of

down feathers that traps stationary air, which in turn acts as an

insulating layer.

interlocking contour feathers：相互交联的轮廓线羽毛

contour: n. 轮廓;外形 You can refer to the general shape or outline

of an object as itscontours

enclose: v. 包围;围住;封闭 If a place or object is enclosed by

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something, the place or object is inside that thing or completely

surrounded by it

down feathers: 绒毛， down jacket：羽绒服

stationary：adj. 静止不动的=motionless=still

in turn：反过来

acts as：起…作用，扮演…

insulating layer: 隔热层

14. subcutaneous fat：皮下脂肪

subcutaneous：adj. 皮下的（了解即可）

15. constantly preen and fluff up a relatively thick layer of fur

preen：v. 用嘴整理羽毛When birds preen their feathers, they clean

them and arrange them neatly using their beaks

fluff up：打松，使变得松软

fluff：n. 绒毛，软毛；v. 使变松

relatively：adv. 相对地，相比较而言地=comparatively

16. terrestrial (land) animals：陆地动物

terrestrial：adj. 陆地的---反义aquatic：水生的

terrestrial：adj. 地球的—反义extraterrestrial：地外的，

eg. extraterrestrial life: 地外生命

17. the limbs are the principal sources of heat loss

limb：n. 四肢

18. warm arterial blood must be supplied to limbs

arterial blood：动脉血

arterial：adj. 动脉的

artery：n. 动脉，也可引申为交通/贸易大动脉eg. trade artery

vein：n. 静脉

19. Heat loss in porpoises is minimized by a countercurrent heat

exchanger

Porpoise: n. 小海豚（了解即可）

Minimize：v. 最小化----反义maximize：v. 最大化

Minimum：n. 最小值；maximum：n. 最大值

countercurrent heat exchanger：对流热交换器

countercurrent：n. 逆流，对流

counter：v. 对抗= resist（考过词汇题）

counterargument：n. 对立观点

counterexample：n. 反面例子

20. This spatial relationship of circulatory vessels minimizes heat loss to

the flipper and thence to the water.

spatial relationship：空间关系

spatial来自space

circulatory vessels：循环血管

vessel：n. 有很多意思，此处是血管的意思，还有“器皿，船只”的意思，都是承载物

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flipper：n. 脚蹼

thence=then 然后

21. anatomical details：解剖细节

anatomical: adj. 解剖的

anatomy：n. 解剖，本质上指的是内部的身体构造，要理解到这个层面上来，例如下句：

fishes have a circulatory anatomy based on the same overall design

overall：adj. 整体的=general

22. Arteries and veins in the near-surface musculature are in contact,

and in arteries and veins, respectively, blood flows in opposite

directions

Musculature：n. 肌肉组织（了解即可），来自muscle肌肉，这个必须知道

in contact：处在接触中

respectively：adv. 分别地，各自地=separately（考过词汇题）

opposite directions：相反的方向

opposite：adj. 相反的

oppose：v. 反对

opponent：n. 反对者—反义词，支持者：proponent，advocate，supporter，这些都得记下来，很常见

Syntax：

1. Homeotherms are organisms that regulate body temperature to a

constant level, usually above that of the ambient (surrounding)

environment.

比较关系中重复概念用that替代，读者须知that的替代对象，本句中that=temperature

Homeotherms：n. 恒温动物（了解即可）

therm：词根，热的意思，eg. geothermal：地热的

constant：adj. 稳定不变的= steady

2. Poikilotherms are organisms whose body temperature conforms to

that of the ambient environment.

比较关系中重复概念被that替代

Poikilotherms：n. 变温动物（了解即可）

Conform to：符合，遵从 If someone or something conforms to a

pattern or type, they are very similar to it

Ambient：adj. 周围的，周边的

3. There is an interesting intermediate status in which body

temperature is usually somewhat higher than ambient temperature.

介词+which， which指介词前面的名词，对该名词做修饰展开

intermediate status：居间状态

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intermediate：adj. 居间的，中间的

ambient temperature：周边的温度

4. The arteries are surrounded by veins, within which blood is returning

to the core of the animal.

介词+which， which指介词前面的名词，对该名词做修饰展开

Artery：n. 动脉

Vein：n. 静脉

Core：n. 中心；地核

Core of the animal: 动物的身体中心

Abstract → Concrete

1. The first line of defense against heat loss is a well-insulated body

surface.

Well-insulated: adj. 绝缘的，隔热的

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