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2023年12月25日发(作者：)
法律英语翻译
Legal English (revised version for the students)
Ch.1 The Main Features of Legal English
一、法律英语的英译：
David Mellinkoff（加州大学洛杉矶分校法学院教授）：《The
Language of the Law》1963
English---Lawful English
Legal parlance（说法、用语）/legal lingo（行话、隐语）/legal jargon（行话、黑话）/legalese( 法律八股文)/language of
jurisprudence(法理语言)
2. the English Language of the Law or shortened as “the
language of the law”
3. 法律英语与法学英语
二、法律英语的范围：
是否凡是涉及法律的英语（词汇、表达方法、句子结构……）都是法律英语？
英美法学界所公认的法律英语主要是指普通法国家（common-law countries）的法律人所用的习惯语言（customary language），包括某些词汇、短语，或具有特色的一些表达方法(mode of
expressions)。
三、法律英语的主要特点：
I. precise or exact (准确)
正常情况下，起草法律文件时，用词造句务必十分精准（with
great exactness），因为一旦笔者的思想、观点、企图落实成文字，即成为法庭判断是非的重要依据，因为按严格解释原则(principle of
strict construction)或唯名论原则(principle of nominalism)，尽管实践中还存在推测意图原则(principle of presumed intent)，但其不占主导地位，书面文字仍然是法官解释法律文件的唯一依据。
实务中鉴于对法律文件中文字的理解不一，也是常有纠纷出现：
e.g. The Charter required that directors “shall be elected on
a vote of the stockholders representing not less than two-thirds
of outstanding capital st ock of the corporation.”
甲方理解成：被选上董事的人需三分之二的股东投票赞成(a
candidate to be elected needs the votes of two-thirds of the
stockholders )
乙方则认为：选董事时须有三分之二的股东出席(two-thirds of
the stockholders must be present at the meeting at which the
election is held)
What’s the judge’s opinion?
e.g. 一个阿肯色州的美国人临终前写了一个遗嘱，遗嘱写道：
The remainder of the testator’s property should be
“divided equally between all of our nephews and nieces on my
wife’s side and my niece.”
问题出在对“between”一词的理解上。立遗嘱人妻子一边的外甥和外甥女加在一起共有22个。这句话是指立遗嘱人的遗产的一半归其妻子方的22个外甥和外甥女，另一半归其本人一方的外甥女？还是指将遗产在双方的外甥外甥女中平均分配呢？
为达准确之目的，常使用下列招法：
1. 使用专门术语（下文有述）
2. 重复使用具有绝对含义的词汇，如all , none, perpetuity,
never, unavoidable;
3. 使用具有绝对限制含义的短语：
“and no more”（仅此而已），“shall not constitute a
waiver” (不构成对权利的放弃)，“shall not be deemed a consent”
（不应视为同意）等此类表达方式；
4. 使用含义宽泛的短语，如：“including but not limited to”
（包括但不限于），“or other similar or dissimilar cause” （或其他类似或非类似的原因），“shall not be deemed to limit”（不应视为限制），“without prejudice”（不得损害）等。
5. 使用详细的告知条款，如：“on deposit in the United States
mail registered and postage prepaid” ( 在美国邮寄挂号函件，邮资预付)。
6. 使用特别定义条款，如：“words in the singular include the
plural and vice versa” (单数形式的词汇包括复数，反之亦然) 等表达方式。
7. 反复详细定义法律文件、事实情况、限制性条件、适用条件、例外情形、权利要求，以及表达不满（grievances）等。如：
“To all to whom these presents shall come or may come-Greeting: Know ye that I, _________, of______, for and in
consideration of ______ Dollars, to me in hand paid by _____, do
by these presents for myself, my heirs, executors, and
administrators, remise, release and forever discharge _______ of
____, his heirs, executors, and administrators, of and from any and
all manner of action or actions, cause and causes of action, suit,
debts, dues, sums of money, accounts, reckonings, bonds, bills,
specialties, covenants, contracts, controversies, agreements,
promises, trespasses, damages, judgments, claims, and demands
whatsoever, in law or equity, which against him I have had, now
have, or which my heirs, executors, or administrators, hereafter
can , shall, or may have, for or by reason of any matter, cause, or
thing whatsoever, from the beginning of the world to the day of
the date of these presents, excepting a claim as to_______. In
witness whereof, etc.”
II. formal (拘谨)
造成法律英语的拘谨而非大众化，原因多多，或出于传统的职业习惯，或出于显示自己与众不同的才华，或出于维护自己的职业尊严和职业利益圈等等，常常使用与众不同的词或表达方法。如：通常情况下我们说“come here!” 而律师往往就用“approach the
bench!”；我们说“He has become a judge.” 而法律界常用“He
is on the bench”；我们说“trust each other” 法学工作者常用“repose in one another”。凡此等等，请看下面的对照表：
通常人们用：法学界常用：
Law teacher law don
Refer advert
Tell advise
Inform apprise
Begin or start commence
Show demonstrate
Building edifice
Bring about effectuate
Use employ
Unfriendly inimical
Work employment
Follow ensue
For the same reason by the same token
律师的此种做法招来各个方面的批评。美国诸多有关学者著书立说，在报刊上撰文要求法律界进行文字改革，呼吁他们“能用小字时不用大字”、“能用短字时不用长字”、“尽量用平实语言（plain
English）”
III. tough（费解）
造成法律英语难学、难懂的原因，还有以下几个方面的原因：
（一）经常使用常用词汇的不常用的含义：
常用词汇不常用含义
1. action a lawsuit (either civil or criminal)
2. alien to transfer property to another
3. assigns person to whom a right or property is assigned
4. avoid to make void
5. bill a draft law
6. brief a written statement submitted to a court
7. charge a form of security
8. clean hands without dishonest motives ( as in , “to have
clean hands”)
9. color apparent legal right (as in, “under color of law”)
10. consideration the main cause for a contract
11. counterpart a duplicate of a document
12. covenant to make a binding promise
13. cover to purchase goods to replace those not delivered
because of a
breach of contract
14. damages the compensation sought for a loss
15. demise to lease
16. depose to state under oath
17. demur not to agree
18. discovery disclosure of information by the opposing
party in a law suit
19. distress the seizure of goods as security for an obligation
20. draft an order for payment of money
21. draw to sign a draft
22. endorsement the signing of one’s name on the back of
a document
23. equitable relating to equity as opposed to law
24. finding determination
25. garnish to obtain satisfaction of a debt from a third party
rather than
from the debtor directly
26. hand signature
27. honor to pay or accept
28. instrument a formal legal document
29. interest a right or claim to property
30. issue living descendants
31. majority legal age (as in, “to reach majority”)
32. master an employer
33. motion a formal request to a court to seek an order or
rule
34. note a written promise to pay a debt
35. of course as a matter of right ( as in, “as a matter of
course”)
36. paper an instrument evidencing a financial obligation
37. party a person engaged in a transaction ; a litigant in a
lawsuit
38. plead to file pleadings
39. pray request for relief addressed to a court
40. prejudice a detriment to legal rights (as in, “without
prejudice”)
41. prescription the acquisition of a right over a long period
42. presents this formal legal documents (as in, “by these
presents”)
43. provided upon condition (word used to create a proviso)
44. purchase to acquire title to land by means other than
descent
45. remove to transfer to another court
46. said mentioned above
47. save to except
48. security collateral
49. serve to deliver legal papers
50. show to make clear by evidence
51. specialty a contract under seal
52. tender an offer of money
53. tenement estate in land
54. utter to put something counterfeit into circulation
55. virtue authority or reason (as in, “by virtue of”)
56. waive to relinquish
(二) 经常使用古英语和中世纪英语词汇：
古英语（old English）指公元450—1100年所流行的英语；中古英语（middle English）指公元1100—1500年之间常用的英语。如：
1. aforesaid mentioned above; referred to previously
2. hereafter from now on; at some future time
3. hereby by this document; by these very words
4. herein in this thing (such as a document, section, or
matter)
5. hereinabove in the above thing (such as a provision or
document , clause)
6. hereinafter later in this document ;
7. hereof of this thing (such as a provision or document)
8. pursuant to in compliance with; in accordance with; under
9. thence from that place; from that time
10. thereafter afterward; later
11. therein in that place or time
o to that place, thing, issue, or the like
13. whereas while by contrast; although
14. whereby by which; through which; in accordance with
which
15. whereof of what; of which; of whom
16. whilst during
Eg. No failure or delay by either of you in exercising any right,
power or privilege hereunder shall operate as a waiver thereof,
nor shall any single or partial exercise preclude any other or
further exercise thereof or the exercise of any other right, power
or privilege. The remedies provided herein are not to be exclusive
of any other remedy and each and every remedy shall be
cumulative and in addition to every other remedy given
hereunder or now or hereafter existing at law or in equity, by
statute or otherwise.
Can you translate the above paragraph into Chinese?
（三）经常使用拉丁语词汇：
在英国，人们把拉丁文看成是一个人深造的基础（the basis for
advanced learning）。对法科学生尤其如此。
拉丁词汇英文含义
1. ab initio from the beginning
2. ad hoc for this purpose
3. ad litem for the lawsuit
4. alibi elsewhere (a defense that the accused was elsewhere
when the
offense was committed)
5. amicus curiae friend of the court
6. bona fide good faith
7. caveat emptor let the buyer beware
8. ex parte from one side
9. in re in the matter of
10. inter alia among others
11. prima facie at first appearance
12. respondeat superior let the superior answer (the
employer is liable for the acts of
his employees)
13. quorum of whom (the minimum number of people
required for a
meeting)
14. scienter having knowledge
15. situs location
16. stare decisis to stand by the decided matters (precedents
must be followed)
17. sui generis of its own kind
18. ultra vires beyond the power
19. mutatis mutandis all necessary changes having been
made
20. versus against
(四) 使用古法语及法律法语中的词汇：
法律语言常使用一般词汇表中不会有的古法语及法律法语，或称“盎格鲁诺曼语”（Anglo Norman）词汇，如：
古法语词汇含义相当的英语
1. action lawsuit
2. alien to transfer (property)
3. assigns assignees (those to whom something has been
assigned)
4. champerty offense of financing a lawsuit in exchange for a
portion
of the proceeds
5. chance-medley sudden quarrel or right
6. chose in action a thing in action, a right to recover a debt
7. color reason, pretext
8. coverture status and rights of a wife arising from marriage
9. delict wrong, offense
10. demise grant; lease; death
11. issue progeny
12. laches neglect to assert a right or claim
13. lien an encumbrance on property for the payment of debt
14. malfeasance wrongdoing
15. nonfeasance not doing, inaction
16. parol oral
17. petty small, minor
18. save except
19. seisin possession of real property
20. specialty a contract under seal
21. style name
22. suffer permit
23. tort a wrong or injury
24. remise to give up
（五）专门术语的使用：
1. agency;
2. certiorari;
3. consideration;
4. domicile;
5. discovery;
6. double jeopardy;
7. easement
8. ex parte ;
9. intestate; 10. jurisdiction in personam; 11. jurisdiction in
rem; 12. principal; 13. specific performance; 14. statue of
limitation; 15. surety; 16. verdict; 17. will; 18. recuse; 19. recision;
20. variance
(六) “行话”（argot）的使用：
“行话”是普遍适用于某一团体（如律师团体）的特定词汇或短语。如：
1. abet
2. accessory
3. accomplice
4. adhesion contract
5. adverse possession
6. cause of action
7. circumstantial evidence
8. foreclosure
9. forum-shopping 10. grandfather clause 11. insider trading
12. issue of fact 13. issue of law 14. latent defect 15. legal fiction
16. negotiate instrument 17. plea bargain 18. promissory
estoppel 19. rescind 20. without prejudice
(七) 经常使用官样文章用语：
1. Before me, the undersigned, a notary public
2. By virtue of the authority vested in me
3. From the beginning of the world to the date hereof
4. In Witness of these things
5. In Witness, this instrument is executed as of the day and
year first written above
6. In Witness Whereof I have hereunto set my hand and caus
ed the seal of…to be affixed
7. Know All people by These Presents
8. To Whom It May Concern
IV. Intentional Use of Ambiguous Language (刻意使用模糊语言)
法律人常用模糊语言，或出于不愿肯定地表示自己立场与观点，或出于表示礼貌和对他人之尊重，或为不至于将自己的手脚捆住，诸如此等，视情况而定。如：
1. Unless this account is paid within next ten days, it will be
necessary to take appropriate action. 本句中的“take appropriate
action” 是“start legal proceedings” or “bring suit”还是别的，不清楚、不肯定。
2. adequate
3. all reasonable means
4. due care
5. due process
6. improper
7. reasonable care/ man/speed
8. satisfactory
9. serious misconduct 10. undue influence
V. lengthy (冗长）
法律英语多冗长句子，一旦遇见，也不必方寸大乱，忍耐与专注乃是必备条件，先细读数遍，理出主句来：
If the Vendor fails to apply for and obtain any necessary
extension of time for completing the Development under sub-clause (2) and fails to complete the Development by the expiry
date of the Building Covenant Period, the Purchase shall be
entitled unless the completion of the sale and purchase herein
has taken place, in addition to any other remedy that he may
have, to give the Vendor notice in writing in that behalf to rescind
this Agreement and upon service of such notice, this Agreement
shall be rescinded within 7 days thereafter and the Vendor shall
repay to the Purchaser all amounts paid by the Purchase
hereunder together with interest thereon at the rate of 2% per
annum above the prime rate specified by the Hong Kong and
Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited from time to time the
date or dates on which such amounts were paid to the date of
repayment, the repayment of such amounts and interest to be in
full and final settlement of all claims by the Purchaser against the
Vendor hereunder.
大家可考虑翻出其译文？
为何法律语言显得冗长？对此存在多种解释。Mellinkoff所说的“赘言”(tautology), 即反复地表达一个意思或使用同义词，通过经常使用双式词(doublets)、对句(couplets)以及三联词的表达方式（triplets）。
究其原因有下面几点：
1、英语在其发展过程中，经常出现两或多种语言并行存在和发展的情况。与英语有最密切联系的语言是拉丁语和法语，而拉丁语实际上在法律语言中处于一种权威性的地位，拉丁语垄断了13和14两个世纪的语言，此后拉丁语依然作为法律的书面语言被使用着。甚至在法律法语的使用最为盛行的14、15世纪，拉丁语依旧在法律的语言中被广泛地使用。在14世纪，法语成为英国法律的通用语言，并一直作为法律语言被使用至15世纪的末期。如：源自拉丁语古英语
lex的legal (法) lawful
doner giver
homicide manslaughter
testify witness
testament will
此外还有：
1). able （古法语）and willing (古英语)
2). acknowledge (古英语) and confess (古法语)
3). act (法语或拉丁语) and deed (古英语)
4). bills (古法语) and notes (古英语)
5). breaking (古英语) and entering (法语)
6). conjecture (中古法语或拉丁语) and surmise (中古法语)
7). deem (古英语) and consider (古法语)
8). depose (古法语) and say (古英语)
9). encumbrance (古法语) or burdens (古英语）
这些语意重复的词语，一些是为了进一步阐明词义，一些是为了强调，而另一些则是为了符合当时使用两种语言的习惯。
2、语意重复的做法另一原因是出于头韵的考虑（the power of
alliteration ）：“alliteration”（头韵）是通过重复使用一个语音（一般来说是个辅音）以使赘言式的语意重复保留在法律语言之中，如：
1）Aid and abet
2) To have and to hold
3）part and parcel
4）safe and sound
5）remise, release and forever quit claim
6）rest, residue and remainder
3、大量使用近义词：
1）able and willing
2) annul and set aside
3) authorize and empower
4) construed and interpreted
5) covenant and agree
6) duties and obligations
7) each and every
8) final and conclusive
9) in lieu of and in place of
10) right, title, and interest
4、17世纪英语的过于华丽的语言表达方式，大量堆砌词藻之风也对法律语言产生影响。
5、16世纪证据法的发展在一定程度上造成了法律语言的冗长性，由于禁止当事人被禁止以证人的身份出庭，为了在诉讼中保护自己，他们都希望能够向法庭提交一份内容相当详实的长篇书面诉状，这样会有助于从其自身的立场出发来阐明案件的情况。
当然还有其他一些原因，如答辩状由拉丁文翻译而来，就似中文的古文被译成现代文一般，总是显得比古文啰嗦冗长等，不一而足。
简文冗长
Annul annul and set aside
Remove entirely and completely remove
Will last will and testament
V oid totally null and void
Without hindrance without let or hindrance
为表述“当事人各方因已接受对价而同意”，下例中用了四行文
字：
Now, therefore, in consideration of the premises, and the
representations, warranties, covenants and undertakings of the
parties hereinafter set forth, and for other good and valuable
considerations, the parties agree among themselves as follows…
此处“good consideration” means “consideration that is
valid under the law”
Premises （合同用语）上述各点，上列各项财产；（契约等文证的）说明部分；（作为文证述及主体的）财产，房地产。
VI. conservative 保守
法律语言的保守性产生于公式化的语言，即在语言中使用某些公式。Mellinkoff曾对最早的英国法进行探索，他认为口头传统是造成对宗教仪式般系统阐述依赖的主要因素。如盎格鲁-撒克逊的誓言必须依赖其形式的重复才能收到其他任何词语不会产生的效果。在文盲充斥的社会里只有逐字重复才能确保重要的观点得以继续存在。若词句以一种愉悦听觉的形式出现，保留和重复就会变得容易。语言被赋予韵律之后就会变得容易传播。盎格鲁-撒克逊的法律采用了当时头韵和节律的形式才使古英语保留在一般的誓言之中。如下列澳洲一法庭提供的的宣誓词范本：
适合刑事程序：
I, …, do solemnly, sincerely and truly affirm and declare that
the evidence which I shall give to the court and jury sworn
between our Sovereign Lady the Queen and the prisoner at the
bar shall be the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth..
When you are taken an affirmation as a witness in a civil trial,
you will be asked to say:
I, …, do solemnly, sincerely and truly affirm and declare that
the evidence which I shall give to the court touching the matter
in question between the two parties shall be the truth, the whole
truth and nothing but the truth.
此外，法律语言的保守性还表现在对先例(precedent)的援用上。
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