环境工程18-28单元专业英语翻译

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2024年4月1日发(作者：)

重点复习

①书本18单元P124,125两页（加粗部分那些段落，考定义，复习资料1-2页）；

②书本21单元P144~145固废处理方法、垃圾焚化，填埋技术特别是P145第二、三段，复习资料**页；

③书本23单元 P156,第三段，噪声控制室负责尖端的技术，复习资料**页。

④书本26单元P169第二部分Operational Procedures，环境影响评价的步骤，考其中的1、2、3、4等小点。

Unit 18

Sources and Types of Solid Wastes固体废物的来源和种类

Knowledge of the sources and types of solid wastes, along with data on the composition and rates of generation,

is basic to the design and operation of the functional elements associated with the management of solid wastes.

了解固体废物的来源和种类，以及其数量组成和产生率，是设计和管理相关固体废物的基本运作条件。

Sources of solid wastes固体废物的来源

Sources of solid wastes are, in general, related to land use and zoning. 固体废物的来源，一般来说，与土地使用和

划分有关。 Although any number of source classifications can be developed, the following categories have been found

useful虽然许多废物的来源分类可以发展，以下是已被发现有用的分类方法 (1)residential , 住宅(2)commercial, 商业

(3)municipal, 市政(4) industrial, 工业(5)open areas, 开放地区(6)treatment plants, 处理厂and (7)agricultural. 和

农业。Typical waste generation facilities, activities, or locations associated with each of these sources are

presented in Table 1. 典型的废物是发电措施，人类活动，或与这些来源相关的每个地点见表1。The types of wastes generated,

which are discussed next, are also identified. 对产生的废物，这是接下去要讨论的种类，也被识别了。

Types of solid wastes固体废物的种类

The term solid wastes is all-inclusive and encompasses all sources, types of classifications, composition, and

properties. 固体废物一词是全部包括所有废物的来源，分类，组成类型和属性。Wastes that are discharged may be of

significant value in another setting, but they are of little or no value to the possessor who wants to dispose of

them. 被丢弃的废物，在另一个环境可能具有重要价值，但是对于愿意处置它们占有者来说，它们很少或者没有价值，To avoid

confusion, the term refuse，often used interchangeably with the term solid wastes, is not used in this text. 为

了避免混淆城市垃圾一词，经常使用这个词，代替固体废物，而不是使用本书的。

As a basis for subsequent discussions. 作为今后讨论的基础。 It will be helpful to define the various types of

solid wastes that are generated. 这将有助于确定不同类型固体废物的产生。It is important to be aware that the

definitions of solid waste terms and the classifications vary greatly in the literature. 重要的是要知道，固体废

物的术语的定义和分类在不同的文献中差别很大。Consequently, the use of published data requires considerable care,

judgment, and common sense. 因此，在公布的数据的使用时需要相当谨慎，判断和常识。The following definitions are

intended to serve as a guide and are not meant to be arbitrary of precise in a scientific sense. 以下定义的目的

是作为一种指导，是不是为了准确任意科学概念。

Food wastes食品废弃物

Food wastes are the animal, fruit, or vegetable residues resulting from the handling, preparation, cooking, and

eating of foods (also called garbage ). 食品废弃物是动物，水果或蔬菜制备，烹饪，和食用的食品残留物的造成的（也

称为垃圾）。The most important characteristic of these wastes is that they are highly putrescible and will decompose

rapidly, especially in warm weather. 这些废物的最重要特征是他们很容易腐烂，并会迅速分解，特别是在温暖的天气。Often,

decomposition will lead to the development of offensive odors. 通常情况下，分解会导致产生异味。 In many locations,

the putrescible nature of these wastes will significantly influence the design and operation of the solid waste

collection system. 在许多地方，这些废物腐烂的性质将大大影响设计和固体废物收集系统的运作。 In addition to the

amounts of food wastes generated at residences, considerable amounts are generated at cafeterias and restaurants,

large institutional facilities such as hospitals and prisons, and facilities associated with the marketing of foods,

including wholesale and retail stores and markets. 除了在住宅产生的食品废物的数量，还有食堂和餐厅也产生的相当数

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量食品废物，大型机构的设施如医院和监狱，以及与食品的销售相关设施，包括批发和零售商店和市场。

Rubbish家庭垃圾

Rubbish consists of combustible and noncombustible solid wastes of household, institutions, commercial activities,

etc., excluding food wastes or other highly putrescible material. 家庭垃圾包括可燃和不可燃固体废物，其来自家庭，

机构，商业活动等，不包括食品废物或其他高度容易腐烂的材料。Typically, combustible rubbish consists of materials such

as paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, rubber, leather, wood, furniture, and garden trimmings. 通常情况下，可

燃垃圾，包括材料例如: 纸，纸板，塑料，纺织，橡胶，皮革，木材，家具和庭院修剪物。Noncombustible rubbish consists

of items such as glass, crockery, tin cans, aluminum cans, ferrous and other nonferrous metals, and dirt. 不燃

垃圾包括如玻璃，陶器，铁罐，铝罐，黑色金属和有色金属等物品，和泥土。

Ashes and Residues灰烬和残留物

Materials remaining from the burning of wood, coal, coke, and other combustible wastes in homes, stores,

institutions, and industrial and municipal facilities for purposes of heating, cooking, and disposing of combustible

wastes are categorized as ashes and residues.从木材，煤炭，焦炭，和家庭其他可燃废物燃烧剩下的材料，商店，机关，

以及工业和市政设施取暖，做饭，产生的可燃废物处置被归类为灰烬和残留物。Residues from power plants normally are not

included in this category. 发电厂的残留物一般不包括在这一类。Ashes and residues are normally composed of fine,

powdery materials, cinders, clinkers, and small amounts of burned and partially burned materials. 灰烬和残留物

通常是由细微的，粉状物料，炉渣，熟料，和少量烧焦的和部分烧毁材料组成。Glass, crockery, and various metals are also

found in the residues from municipal incinerators. 玻璃，陶器，以及各种金属也从市区焚化炉的残留物中被发现。

Demolition and construction wastes拆除和建筑垃圾

Wastes from razed buildings and other structures are classified as demolition wastes. 建筑物被夷为平地，及其他

废物被列为拆除废物。 Wastes from the construction, remodeling, and repairing of individual residences, commercial

buildings, and other structures are classified as construction wastes.来自建筑的改造，以及个别住宅，商业楼宇维

修，和其他建筑物的废物，被列为建筑废料。These wastes are often classified as rubbish. 这些废物往往列为垃圾。The

quantities produced are difficult to estimate and variable in composition, but may include dirt, stones, concrete,

bricks, plaster, lumber, shingles, and plumbing, heating, and electrical parts. 以上垃圾的生产数量很难估计和组

成会变化，但是可能包括泥土，石块，水泥，砖块，灰泥，木材，瓦块，管材管件，暖气设备及电气零件。

Special wastes 特殊废物

wastes such as street sweepings,roadside litter, litter from municipal litter containers, catch-basin debris,dead

animals, and abandoned vehicles are classified as special wastes. 例如街头杂物，路边的垃圾，城市垃圾的废屑箱，，

集水井的碎片，动物尸体，以及被遗弃的车辆都被列为特殊废物。Because it is impossible to predict where dead animals

and abandoned automobiles will be found, these wastes are often identified as originating from nonspecific diffuse

sources. 因为无法预测动物尸体和被遗弃的汽车一定在哪里，这些废物是常常被列为非特定的扩散来源。This is in contrast

to residential sources,which are also diffuse but specific in that the generation of the wastes is a recurring event.

这是相对于住宅源，它同样是扩散源，但认为，废物的产生是一个反复发生的事情具体。

Treatment Plant Wastes 废物处理厂

The solid and semisolid wastes from water ,waste water, and industrial waste treatment facilities are included in

this classification.固体和半固体废物来自水，生活废水和工业废物处理设施，包括在此分类。The specific characteristics

of these materials vary, depending on the nature of the treatment process. 这些材料的具体特点各不相同，根据性质

确定处理过程。At present, their collection is not the charge of most municipal agencies responsible for solid waste

management. 目前，他们的收集内容不是大多数市政机构负责固体废物管理工作。In the future, however, it is anticipated

that their disposal will become a major factor in any solid waste management plan. 在未来，然而，预计它们的处置，

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将成为一个在任何固体废物管理计划的主要因素。

Agricultural Wastes 农业废弃物

Waste and residues resulting from diverse agricultural activities---such as the planting and harvesting of row,

field ,and tree and vine crops,the production of milk, the production of animals for slaughter, and the operation

of feedlots——are collectively called agricultural wastes .不同的农业活动造成的，例如种植和收获，牧场，树和葡

萄作物，生产牛奶，屠宰动物，与饲养场的运作，产生的废物和残余物，统称农业废弃物。At present, the disposal of these

wastes is not the responsibility of most municipal and county solid waste management agencies. 目前，这些废物的

处置，不是大多数市，县固体废物管理机构的责任范围。However, in many areas the disposal of animal manure has become

a critical problem, especially from feedlots and dairies. 然而，在许多领域中的动物粪便处理已成为一个严重的问题，

尤其是饲养场和奶牛场。

Hazardous Wastes 危险废物

Chemical, biological, flammable, explosive, or radioactive wastes that pose a substantial danger, immediately or

over time, to human, plant, or animal life are classified as hazardous. 化学，生物，易燃，易爆，放射性废物，它

们立刻或随着时间的推移，对人类，植物或动物的生活造成重大危险的，是危险废物。Typically, these wastes occur as

liquids, but they are often found in the form of gases, solids,or sludges. 通常，这些废物产生的是液体，但是它们

经常被发现以气体，固体，或废渣形式存在。In all cases, these wastes must be handled and disposed of with great care

and caution. 在所有情况下，这些废物必须妥善处理和小心谨慎地处置。

Unit 20

Methods of Waste Disposal废物处置方法

It is inevitable that as there are different types of waste,there will be varying methods of waste disposal. 这

是不可避免的，既然有不同类别的废物，将有不同程度的废物处置方法。Briefly most solid wastes are deposited on land

as tips or spoil heaps,or as land infill to quarries and mine shafts,or as dumps containing a large range of materials.

简要大多数固体废物被存放在土地的提示或破坏堆，或填充的土地采石场和矿井，或堆放场的材料大范围。In addition,small

quantities of waste are are dumped into the sea. 此外，少量的废物倾入海中。Waste is produced continually so there

is often a need for some sort of storage facility. 不断产生的废物所以往往是一些储存设施类的需要。In the case of

some mineral extractive industries such as deep mined coal,china clay and ironstone,there is storage on the working

site as spoil heaps,but this is waste deposition rather than disposal. 在一些矿产采掘业，如深开采煤炭，粘土和铁

矿石中国的情况，但在工作场所堆作为存储破坏，但这是废物沉积，而不是处理。In other industries the stored waste often

has to be transported to disposal areas and tipped or dumped. 在其他行业存储的废物往往被运送到垃圾处理领域和倾

斜或倾倒。Alternatively,the stored waste may be treated in various ways before disposal . 另外，存储的废物可被

视为前以不同的方式处理。The treatment may reduce the bulk,or make disposal easier,or extract materials that can

be reused or recycled back into manufacturing processes. 这种治疗可能会减少体积，方便或进行处置，或摘录可再用或

循环再造到制造过程的回材料。In respect of environmental pollution the quantity,the treatment,and disposal methods

of waste are of pime importance. 在环境污染的数量方面，治疗和废物处理方法是宗座外方传教会的重要性。

Methods Used by Local Authorities地方当局使用的方法

The Public Health Act 1936 enables Local Authorities to collect,treat,and dispose of all refuse from the domestic

sector,and such industrial and trade waste as requested. 公共健康法1936年使地方当局可以收集，处理和处置都来自

国内部门的垃圾，以及工业和贸易等的要求浪费。In 1973,Local Authorities in England dealt with 19.5 M tonnes of waste

by various methods (see table l) . 在1973年为19.5 M号公吨废物通过各种方式处理的英国地方当局（见附表）。About 15

M tonnes of the tipped waste is household refuse consisting of cinders,ash,dust,vegetable and waste food

matter,paper,board,metal,rags,glass,and plastics,whilst the remaining 4.5 M tonnes is from trade sources. 约15M

的倾泻公吨废物是生活垃圾组成的炉渣，粉煤灰，粉尘，蔬菜和浪费粮食的问题，纸张，纸板，金属，破布，玻璃，塑料，而

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余下的四米半吨是从贸易来源。About 86% of this waste is not pretreated an is disposed of by land quarter

of this waste is just dumped in an uncontrolled or non-systematic manner. 约86％，这不是浪费预处理是一个倾斜的

土地处置的。 The other 75% is dealt with by controlled tipping. 这些废物的一个季度，只是在无法控制的倾倒或不系

统的方式。另外75％是通过控制处理倾泻的。This means the waste is deposited,spread,and compacted into shallow

layers,and covered with soil to assist decomposition and sealing. 这意味着废物存放，传播和压缩成浅层，并与土壤，

帮助分解和密封覆盖。This method should ensure that loose litter does not blow about,there is no unpleasant odour,and

flies and vermin do not breed to produce a health hazard. 这种方法应该确保垃圾不松散的打击对，没有任何不愉快的

气味，苍蝇和害虫繁殖不产生健康危害。An alternative to tipping is the use of waste for land in filling. 对倾斜的

替代办法是浪费土地使用填补。Disused quarries, or land which is derelict by virtue of being low-lying and badly drained,

or derelict as a result of spoil tips, can be reclaimed by refuse in-filling. 废弃的采石场，或土地是由废弃的正

凭借低洼地带及排水不好，或者废弃原因造成的破坏技巧，可以回收的垃圾填。

The shortage of suitable land for tipping purposes has caused some Local Authorities to consider alternative

alternative methods of waste disposal.缺乏合适的土地用于处理废物，导致一些地方当局考虑其他废物处置的替代方法。

Controlled tipping is usually cheap in respect of capital and labour costs, but it can become costly if highly priced

land has to be purchased for future tipping. 控制成本通常是减少在资本和劳动力方面的成本, 但它会变得更昂贵，如果

高价的土地必须为未来的成本买单。A way of avoiding this, and assisting land conservation, is to reduce the bulk

quantity of the waste before tipping.一种方法避免上述情况，和保护土地，就是在倾倒之前大量减少废物的量。This allows

existing tips to be used for a longer time, reduces the need for new ones, and reduces labour costs for tipping

operations. 为了倾倒废物的行动，这表明现有的土地，要使用更长的时间，以减少新的需求，并降低劳动力成本。 Waste can

be pretreated by pulverizing, or mechanically breaking it down into smaller particle sizes which can reduce the

bulk by up to 33% by volume. 废物预处理可以粉碎，或机械分解成较小的颗粒尺寸下来，可减少多达33％的体积。Whilst the

cost of a pulverizing plant is high, the salvaging of materials for recycling, and less waste to deposit can help

to off-set the initial capital cost. 虽然粉碎设备的成本高，但废物原料可以循环再用，减少废物的存放，有助于抵消初

始资本费用。Another pretreatment waste technique is incineration, which involves combustion in a furnace at a

temperature between 950 and 1100`C to minimize corrosion and the emission of odours. 另一种预处理垃圾的方法是焚

烧，此方法是在温度处于950~1100摄氏度之间的熔炉中燃烧，以减少腐烂和气味的产生。This reduces the waste bulk

considerably, and the process can reduce the volume up to 90% and the weight up to 60%, compared to untreated waste.

相对于未经处理的废物，这大大减少了废物的体积，这一过程可以体积减少高达90％，重量达60％。Also it is possible to

use the heat energy produced for augmenting electrical generation or district heating, and this is already being

carried out in some countries. 而且可以用产生的热能来增加发电量或用于地区取暖，并且这已经正在某些国家应用。It has

been estimated that if all the household and trade refuse collected in the UK in 1974 had been incinerated and thr

heat used, this could have saved energy equivalent to 6 M tonnes of coal.据估计，如果1974年英国所收集的家庭和

交易市场的垃圾全部用来焚烧并且热能都加以利用，则可以节约相当于600万吨煤的能量。

Methods Use by industry

An approximate estimate of the annual amount of industrial waste produced in 1973 was 110M tonnes or 67% from

the mining and quarrying industries,12M tonnes or 7.3% from CEGB power stations,and 23M tonnes or 14% from other

industrial sectors. 一个1973年生产的工业废水量估计约为110吨，或从采矿及采石业67％，1200万吨，从中央发电局发

电站7.3％，二千三百万吨或其他工业部门的14％。There are no published figures for radioactive wastes, but the amount

is relatively small. 没有公布对放射性废物的数字，但数额相对较小。The quantity and type of waste varies from industry

to industry ,but the major part consists of solid material,liquid slurries and effluent containing a wide range

of suspended and dissolved chemical substances.工业行业的不同废物的数量与类型不同，但主要部分是固态物质，液体泥

浆和污水含有悬浮和溶解各种化学物质组成。The large amount of solid waste produced by the mining and extractive

industries is disposed of by tipping on land or into the sea. 采矿业和采掘工业产生的大量固体废物用来处置土地或

倾泻入海。Other wastes such as furnace clinker, blastfurnace slag, and copper, tin and zinc-lead slags have been

omitted because they are mainly re-use in subsequent production. 其他废物，如高炉熟料，矿渣，铜，锡和锌，铅炉渣

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被忽略，因为它们是主要是在随后的生产使用。About 70% of this waste is not treated in any way and is tipped on land,or

is use for land in-full and reclamation. 约70％的这些废物不以任何方式处理，是倾倒到土地上，或用于填埋土地或填

海工程。The problems associated with this are not discussed in this paper. 这不是本文讨论有关的问题。It should be

noted that about 26% of the above wastes are not tipped,but are used to assist in the production of materials such

as bricks, concrete blocks, cement, and road and concrete aggregate. 应当指出，大约26%以上不倾卸的废物，但用于

为材料的生产提供协助，如砖，水泥块，水泥，道路，混凝土骨料。

Manufacturing industries produce wastes which are solid, semi-solid, liquid, or gaseous,and each category may

contain toxic or non-toxic, flammable, and no-combustible constituents. 制造业产生的废物是固体，半固体，液体或

气体，每类包含有毒或无毒，易燃，不可燃成分。There are no overall data available across all industries to show the

quantities of waste or the methods of disposal. 没有整体的数据提供各行业以显示或处置废物的方法的数量。Some limited

surveys have been carride out, and these at least provide some detailed information. 一些有限的调查已经进行了，

而这些至少提供了一些详细的资料。The Local Government Operational Research Unit conducted a survey of the industrial

wastes from 600 firms in the heavily industrialized area of Manchester and Salford in 1970. 地方政府在1970年研

究进行的一个高度工业化地区工业废物的调查包含曼彻斯特和索尔福德的600个行业。It was found that one million tonnes

of waste annum was produced, consisting of non-combusteble sludge, dust,ash,brick,slag and excabated materials;

and combustible paper,rubber,plastics, timber, sawdust, textiles and chemical materials. 结果发现，每年产生100

万吨垃圾，包括非可燃污泥，粉尘，灰，砖，炉渣和挖掘材料和可燃造纸，橡胶，塑料，木材，木屑，纺织品和化工原料。The

quantities and methods of disposal are shown in reference. In this survey, 72% of waste was tipped on land , 16%

of the intractable an dangerous waste was dumped at sea in sealed containers , and 8.6% was buried . 涉及废物的

数量和处理方法。在这个调查中，72％的垃圾被堆积在土地上，16％的危险废物被倾倒在密封的集装箱海，8.6％被埋葬。Only

about 3% of the waste disposed of by the alternative methods of incineration or discharge into sewers. 只有约3％

作处理，焚化或排放入污水渠替代浪费的方法。

Unit 21

Disposal of Solid Wastes固体废物的处置

Landfilling

Except for the disposal of municipal solid wastes at sea, which is not permitted by most developed countries, solid

wastes, or their residues in some form, must go to the land. Landfilling, the most economical and consequently the

most common method of solid waste disposal, is used for 90 percent f the municipal solid wastes in the United Kingdom

and North America. Even in European countries like West Germany and Switzerland, with massive investments in

incineration and composting plants, over 6 percent of domestic and commercial waste is landfilled. Incineration

cannot, of course, eliminate landfilling. In fact, it creates a more concentrated residue that may be more hazardous

to water supplies than unburned solid wastes. The area needed for landfilling of solid wastes is about 1 ah per

year for every 25,000 people (1 Ac/10,000 people). This is illustrated in the following Example.

Example

For a population of 25,000, estimate the annual area requirements (excluding the buffer zone) for a normally compacted

landfill having a refuse depth of 4m excluding cover material.

Solution Assuming that per capita waste generation is 2.0kg/d and that the density of a well-compacted landfill

is 450kg/m,the annual area required is

Area requirements for landfilling can vary considerably with the type of waste and the degree of compaction. Details

of the design and operation of sanitary landfills are discussed in reference.

The balance of this section reviews some of the processes that may be used prior to land disposal to reduce

waste volume and/or utilize waste components, thus reducing landfill needs.

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3

Incineration

Volume reduction. Large numbers of batch-fed incinerators built during the 1930 and 1940s to reduce waste volume

were major contributors to air pollution, performed poorly, and were costly to maintain. Some of these were upgraded,

but most were shut down and replaced by land disposal of refuse whenever possible. However, as landfill capacity

decreased, volume reduction became more important. At the same time, the fuel value of refuse had been rising steadily.

As a result, incineration for reducing waste volume (by about 90 percent) and weight (by 75 percent) with the

possibility of energy recovery, became a very popular processing option during the 1970s.

The newer municipal incinerators are usually the continuously burning type, and many have “waterwall”

construction in the combustion chamber in place of the older. More common refractory lining. The waterwall consists

of joined vertical boiler tubes containing water. The tubes absorb the heat to provide hot water for steam, and

they also control the furnace temperature. With waterwall units, costly refractory maintenance is eliminated,

pollution control requirements are reduced (because of the reduction in quench water and gos volumes requiring

treatment), and heat recovery is simpler. Unfortunately, judging by European experience, corrosion of waterwall

units may be a serious problem.

The combustion temperatures of conventional incinerators fueled only by wastes are about 760℃ (1,400℉) in

the furnace proper (insufficient to burn or even melt glass) and in excess of 870℃ (1,600℉) in the secondary

combustion chamber. These temperatures are needed to avoid odor from incomplete combustion. Temperatures up to

1,650℃ (3,000℉), which would reduce volume by 97 percent and convert metal and glass to ash, are possible with

supplementary fuels. Although the first high-temperature pilot installation was built in 1996, application to

full-scale units has not followed, presumably because of the high costs involved.

Energy recovery. Mass-burning of solid wastes to produce steam for heating or for use in power generation has

been common in Western Europe and Japan for many years. However, until rising fuel prices through the 1970s and

early 1980s made the economics of energy recovery attractive, the practice was rare in North America.

Wastes burned solely for volume reduction do not need any auxiliary fuel except for start-up. On the other hand,

when the objective is steam production, supplementary fuel (usually gas) must be used with the pulverized refuse,

because of the variable energy content of the waste or in the event the quantity of waste available is insufficient.

Ferrous metals are normally recovered from the ash.

Markets for steam must be close to the waste-burning incinerators for these combustion systems to be competitive

with other heating sources. Wilson (1977) has suggested a maximum distance of 1 mile (1.6 km), but even this may

be too far. The city of Chicago (Northwest Plant) and the city of Hamilton, Ontario (SWARU Plant), are two locations

where no market for the steam from incineration was available during the first 10 years of operation (APWA, 1979).

The incinerator in the city of Montreal Canada, had no market for the steam from its mass-burning waterwall

incinerators until 1983 (about 15 years after is was built).

Of the problems associated with incineration, air pollution control, especially the removal of the fine

particulates and toxic gases (including dioxin), are the most difficult. The emission of combustible,

carbon-containing pollutants can be controlled by optimizing the combustion process. Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur

and other gaseous pollutants have no been a problem because of their relatively small concentration. Other concerns

related to incineration include the disposal of the liquid wastes from floor drainage, quench water, and scrubber

effluent, and the problem of ash disposal in landfills because of heavy metal residues. Public opposition to

incinerators is another serious obstacle to their use. Capital costs (1987 prices) of about $120 million (U.S.)

per 1000 ton of daily capacity, and operating costs of $ 15 to $ 30 per ton, apply to cities with over 300,000 population,

Unit costs for smaller centers are much greater, and this tends to limit the use of incinerators to large cities.

Even there, however, because of public concern (and considerable evidence) about the toxic gases generated by the

burning of soled wastes, incineration is seldom proposed now unless lack of landfill sies leaves no better alternative.

This was the situation in Detroit in 1987, where, despite vigorous protests from environmentalists and the neighboring

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Canadian city of Windsor, Ontario, a $500 million, 4000-ton-per-day waste-to-energy plant, the largest in the US.,

was approved.

Other Conversion Processes

Chemical processes (such as fluidized bed incineration, pyrolysis, and wet oxidation) and biological processes

(composting and anaerobic digestion) are other potential methods for reducing municipal waste volumes and/or

converting the waste to useful products. Information on many of these processes has been provided in the Handbook

of Solid Waste Management and by other investigators. However, of all the chemical and biological conversion processes

only incineration with heat recovery and composting has become widely accepted.

Composting is the aerobic decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms, primarily bacteria and fungi. The

reactions generate heat, raising compost temperatures during the composting period. Waste volume is reduced by about

30 percent for wastes with a high proportion of newsprint to perhaps 60 percent for garden debris.

Composting may take place naturally under controlled conditions or in mechanized composting plants. In natural

systems, ground garbage, preferably with glass and metals removed, is mixed with a nutrient source (sewage sludge,

animal manure, night soil) and a filler (wood chips, ground corn cobs) which permits air to enter the pile. The

mixture, maintained at about 50 percent moisture content, is placed in windrows, 2 to 3 m wide, and turned over

once or twice a week. In four to six weeks, when the color darkens, the temperature drops, and a musty odor develops,

the process is compete. The filler may then be remove and the remaining “humans” used as soil conditioner. With

mechanical plants, continual aeration and mixing enable composting time to be reduced by about 50 percent. A short

period usually follows the mechanical process to allow the composting material to “mature.”

There is a limited market for soil conditioners in North America. Of the 20 or 30 solid waste composting plants

built in the U.S. since the first one in Altoona, Pa ., in 1951, all but perhaps two or three are closed. Newer

composting plants like the Delaware Reclamation Project and others in the northeastern United States combine

composting of sewage sludge with municipal solid waste and may indicate a trend toward high-rate composting as one

solution to the problems of sludge disposal and solid waste management. By 1985, about 60 composting facilities,

primarily for sewage sludge, were operating in 30 states, with the one in Denver, Colo., which opened in 1987, being

the largest aerated windrow system in the U.S. The situation is quite different in Western Europe, Israel, Japan,

and other advanced countries committed to land reclamation, where many successful solid waste composting plants

have been operation for many years. Rotterdam, in Holland, already the location of one of Europe’s largest heat

recovery incinerators, has a major composting plant to complement its waste management program. The same interest

in composting exists in Third-World countries, but in these areas windrow systems are the preferred method.

Unit22

Sound and Noise声音和噪音

That which we hear is called sound. 那些我们听得到的就是声音。One relationship between motion and sound is

suggested by the use of the word still, which means both motionless and quiet. 当我们使用声音这个词的时候声音和

运动之间的关系仍然会被提到，这就意味着不动就没有声音。We may infer, then,that sound is associated with motion. 那

么我们就可以推断声音是与运动有关的。 Motion is a form of energy. 运动是能量的一种形式。 Sound must be produced by

some source that transmits its energy of motion to us by some means that our ears can detect.声音的产生必须要有

一系列能通过某些途径传递它能被我们耳朵检测到的运动能量给我们的来源。

The speed of sound in air under normal conditions on Earth is 334 meters/sec. 声音在空气中的速度在地球上

正常情况下为334米/ 秒.Any object, such as an airplane, that travels slower than sound is said to be subsonic; 任

何物体，例如飞机，它们运行的速度低于声速的都被认为是亚音速， one that is faster is supersonic. 另一个是速度更快

的超音速。The sound wave is a succession of compressions and expansions that disturb the normal density of the medium

in which they are propagated. 声波是一种扰乱它们传播媒介正常密度的压缩和扩展的连续。This type of wave is called

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an elastic wave, 这种波浪型称为弹性波， The pitch of any given sound is determined by the frequency of the waves

that produce it. 任何给定的音调都是由声波的频率生产的。The energy of a given sound, however, is not determined by

the frequency, wavelength, or wave speed. 然而一个给定的声音的能量却不是由频率，波长，或波速确定的。 Sound power

is related to loudness, but the two are not the same. 声功率是与响度有关的，但两者并不相同。

Unwanted sound can be defined as noise. 不受欢迎的声音可以被定义为噪音。Yet this concept is straightforward

enough, but it does not teach us how to predict which sounds will be disliked. 虽然这个概念直接明了，但它并没有

教我们如何去预测人们不喜欢的声音。 After all, a given sound may be pleasant when soft but noise when loud, acceptable

for a short time but noise when prolonged, intriguing when rhythmic but noise when randomly repeated, or reasonable

when you make it but noise when someone else make it. 毕竟，一个给定的声音可以是令人愉快的当它柔和的时候，但也

会变成噪声当它太响时，短时间内是可以被接受的但时间太长了就变成噪声了，当它有节奏时就会很有趣但也会变成噪声当它

随即地重复时，或者当你来制造时是合理的，但当别人来做时就变成噪音了。Of all the attributes that distinguish between

wanted and unwanted sound, the one that we generally consider the most significant is loudness. 在所有区分想要

和不想要的声音的属性中，一个是我们普遍认为最重要的是响度。 In any event, loudness tends to be annoying, therefore,

the louder a sound is, the more likely is to be considered noise. 在任何情况下，响度往往是烦人的，因此，声音越

响亮，越有可能将被视为噪音。There are yet other subtleties to complicate matters. 此外还有其他一些微妙的联系使

事情复杂化。People often associate noise with power. 人们常常把噪声和功率联系起来。 More difficult to modify,

perhaps, is the association of noise with social recognition. 更难以改变的，或许是噪音与社会认同之间的联系。 Such

is the case, all too often, with loud speech, a loud motorcycle, loud music, especially toy guns and firecrackers.

像这些经常的事例，大声讲话，一辆嘈杂的摩托车，响亮的音乐，尤其是玩具枪和爆竹。

Loudness is not energy, or pressure or frequency, or any thing else that can be measured with a physical

instrument. 响度不是能源，或压力或频率，或任何事情都可以与物理仪器测量。 Loudness is a sensation, and if you want

to know how loud a sound is, you must get the answer from the person who hears it. 响度是一种感觉，如果你想知道

声音多响亮，你必须从听到它的人那里得到答案。 However, it is possible to obtain useful information from instruments

by measuring some physical property of sound that is related to the human perception of loudness. 然而，可以通

过测量获得关系到人类感知响度的声音的物理性质的有用信息。The instrument that measures sound is called a decibel

meter, and a scale of such values is callde a decibel (abbreviated dB) scale. It is set up as follows: 该措施被

称为声音分贝仪器仪表，以及这种价值观念的规模callde分贝（简称分贝）的规模。这是设置如下：

(1) The scale starts at zero dB, which represents the softest sound that is audible to the human ear. 规

模始于零分贝，它代表了人耳听到最微弱的声音。

(2) Each tenfold increase in sound intensity is represented by an additional 10 dB. Thus, a 10-dB sound is

10 tomes as intense as the faintest audible sound. 每增加了10倍声强是一种额外的10分贝的代表。因此，10分贝的

声音是10倍强度于微弱的声音。The sound level in a quiet library is about 1000 times as intense as the faintest audible

sound. Therefore the sound level in the library is 10+10+10 or 30 dB. 在一个安静的图书馆的声压级是大约1000倍激

烈的微弱声音。因此，在图书馆的声压级是10 +10 +10或30分贝。

(3) Decibel levels are not directly additive. If one rustling leaf is 10 times the intensity of the faintest

audible sound, two rustling leaves are 20 times as intense, not 100 times as intense, and therefore not 20 decibel

louder. 分贝级不是直接的相加。如果一片落叶是10倍一丝声响声强，二片叶子的声强是20倍于一丝声响声强，而不是100

倍，所以不是20分贝。 It would take 10 rustling leaves to be 10 times as intense, and only then would the decibel

level go up to 20dB. 这需要用10片叶子沙沙作响的声音才是10倍于一丝声响声强，只有这样的分贝水平上升到20dB的。

Decibel meters respond to sound pressure, and so does the human ear, but the human ear also responds to the

tonal qualities of sound, and particularly to its frequency, so it is important for us to learn about these very

interesting attributes. 分贝仪对声压作出反应，同样人类的耳朵也是，但人的耳朵也对声音的音质，特别是其频率作出反

应，因此我们了解这些非常有趣的特性是很重要的。

Selected from ”Truk A. , Wittes J.T. , Turk J. ,Wittes R.E. , Environmental Science, 2

nd

Ed. ,

W.B. Saunders Company, 1978”

Unit 23 Noise Control噪声控制

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Noise is transmitted from a source to a receiver.噪声是从源头传播给接收者的。To control noise, therefore ,we can

reduce the source ,interrupt the path of transmission , or protect the receiver.因此，为了控制噪声，我们应该减

少噪声源，切断传播途径，或者保护接受者。

The most obvious method reducing the noise production is changing the source in someway. 减少噪声制造最显

著的途径就是通过某种办法改变噪声源。It might be possible to modify technological approaches so as to accomplish

given objectives more quietly.我们可以通过改造技术的方法实现给定目标，使其更安静。Thus machinery should be designed

so that parts do not needlessly hit or rub against each other. 因此，机械的设计应使其各部分不会互相碰击或发生不

必要的相互摩擦。Rotary saws instead of jackhammers could be used to break up street pavement.代替气锤的转锯可以

用来打破街道。Ultrasonic pile drivers could replace the noisier steam-powered impact-type pile drivers. 超声波

打桩机可以代替在聒噪蒸汽动力冲击式打桩机。

Control of noise is a complex and sophisticated technology , and it is most effective when it is applied to

the original design of the potentially offending source. 噪音控制是一个复杂和尖端的技术，它最有效是用于潜在违法

来源的原始设计。All too often a device or a machine or an entire industrial facility is designed with a view only

to maximize its capacity to carry out its assigned function. 往往一个设备或机器或一个完整的工业设施的设计都只是

希望使其能力最大化使其发挥理想的功能。If it turns out to be excessively noisy , an acoustical engineer may be called

in to “sound-proof” it.如果发现噪声过大，在声学工程上可以称为将其“隔音”。Under such circumstances ,the engineer

may be forced to accommodate to features of construction that should never have been accepted in the first place.

在这种情况下，工程师会作出调节使其适应不来不接受的建筑特征。Therefore , much of his effort may necessarily be

applied , not to the source ,but to the path between sound and receiver.因此，很多他们的努力都很有必要被运用，

不是在噪声源，而是在声音与接受者之间的途径。

Sound travels through air by compressions and expansions. 声音通过空气的压缩和膨胀来传播。It also travels

through other elastic media, including solids such as wood.它也可以通过其它的媒介来传播，包括固体例如木材。 Such

solids vibrate in response to sound and therefore do not effectively interrupt its transmission. 固体对声音的

反应是颤动，因此不能有效的中断声音的传播. However, we could use various materials that vibrate very inefficiently,

such as wool or lead, and absorb the sound energy, converting it to heat. 不过，我们可以使用各种振动效率很低的

材料，如羊毛或铅，并吸收声能，将其转化为热。(Very little heat is involved; the sound power of a symphony orchestra

will warm up a room about as much as a-watt electric heater.) （热量很少涉及，一个交响乐团的声功率升温大约像

瓦的电热水器多一个房间。）Sound absorbing media have been developed extensively; they are called acoustical materials.

吸音媒介已经被广泛制定，它们被称为声学材料。We could also build interruption of the sound waves mechanically into

more kinds of machinery; devices that function in this way are called mufflers. 我们也建立了声波中断机械技术，

并将其用于更多种类的机械设备，以这种方式被称为消声器的功能。Finally, we may be able to deflect the sound path away

from the receiver, as by mechanically directing jet exhaust noise upward instead of down. 最后，我们也许能够把

转移声音的路径远离接收器，如机械排气噪声指挥飞机上升而不是下降。Such defection is in effect, an interruption

between source and receiver. 这种背叛实际上是一个源和接收器之间的干扰。

The final line of desense is strictly personal.最后的一条防线就是严格要求自己。We protect ourselves

instinctively when we hold our hands over our ears。我们本能是用手盖住耳朵保护自己。Alternatively，we can use ear

plugs or muffs. 或者，我们可以用耳塞或耳罩。A combination of ear plugs and muff can reduce noise by 40 or 50 decibels，

一个耳塞和套管的组合可以减少40至50分贝的噪音，which could make a jet plane sound no louder than a vacuum cleaner.

这可能使得喷气式飞机的声音听起来跟吸尘器差不多。Such protection could prevent the deafness cause by combat

training，这种保护可以防止在作战训练导致耳聋的原因出现，and should also be worn for recreational shooting，也适

用于休闲射击。

We can also protect ourselves from a noise source by going away from it。我们还可以从防止噪声源那保护自己。

In a factory,such reduction of exposure may take the form of rotating assignments so that different workers take

their turns at the noisy jobs。在一家工厂，采用轮流作业的形式来减少工人遭嘈杂的环境中工作。

Until 1960’s, noise control, in the United States of America, was chiefly handled by state and local

governments. 直到20世纪60年代，在美利坚合众国的国家和地方政府才主要处理控制噪声污染。 The ment of

- 9 -

Labor in 1969 established limits for occupational noise exposure in certain companies under government contract.

美国劳动署成立于1969年，政府合同用于限制某些企业职业噪声污染。In 1971 it set an occupational noise standard, and

an Executive Order later required federal occupational safety the health programs to be consistent with this standard.

1971年设立了一个职业噪音标准，该项行政命令颁布后，所需的联邦职业安全卫生规划要符合这个标准，与其一致的。 These

and other government actions led to enactment of the Noise Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-574). 这些以及其

他政府导致了1972年的噪声控制法（公法92-574制定的行动）。It declared that the policy of the United States was “to

promote an environment for all Americans free from noise that jeopardizes their health or welfare”. 它宣布，美

国的政策是“让美国公民从噪声危害健康和福利的环境中获得环境自由”。Under this law, the nmental Protection

Agency (EPA) coordinates all federal programs relating to noise research and noise control. 根据这项法律，环境

保护署（EPA）协调所有有关噪声的研究和噪音控制的联邦计划。 EPA has the authority to prescribe and amend standard

limiting noise generation for products identified as major sources of noise. 环保局有权规定并修改噪声限制标准的

主要来源和识别产品的噪声。 These include construction and transportation equipment, motors, engines, electrical

and electronic equipment. 其中包括建筑和交通运输设备，电机，发动机，电气和电子设备。 In 1974, the Agency also set

noise limits for new medium and heavy trucks, new diesel and diesel-electric locomotives, and railroad cars. 1974

年，该机构还中型和重型卡车，新的柴油机和柴油电力机车和车厢对建立了新的噪音限制，。

Unit 24

Energy consumption and pollution能源消耗和污染

Every barrel of oil ,ton of coal ,and kilogram of uranium consumed represents multiple sources of environment

disruption . 每桶石油，每吨煤炭，消耗的每公斤铀代表环境破坏多种来源。Land is preempted and defaced in mining and

the establishment of transportation routes . 土地是采矿和运输路线的建立所污染的。The refining of petroleum and the

consumption of fuel cause serious air pollution and the waste heat produced has the potential to disrupt ecosystems

or alter world climate . 石油炼制与燃料造成严重空气污染和废物产生的热量消耗有可能破坏生态系统或改变世界气候。Is

it necessary to pollute the environment so severely ? 是否有必要污染环境如此严重？Would it is be possible to preserve

the amenities of civilization and simultaneously improve the quality and cleanliness of the planet ? 难道是能够

保住文明的设施，同时提高质量和地球清洁？The answer is definitely yes ,for there are a great many ways to reduce

pollution without undue sacrifice of personal conveniences or comforts . 答案是肯定的，因为有很多方法来减少对个

人的方便而舒适的不当或牺牲的污染。

One approach to reducing pollution is reduce the source ——that is ,to reduce energy consumption. 一种

方法是减少污染，减少源头污染——即降低能源消耗。We could accomplish this goal by a concerted ,widely practiced

conversation program . 我们可以完成一个协调一致的，广泛采用这一目标的谈话节目。If large proportion of population

lowered their thermostats to 20℃ in winter and raised their air conditioner settings to 25℃ in summer ,chose to

live in smaller house that were easier to heat ,drove fewer miles ,turned off unused lights and recycled valuable

products ,significant quantities of fuel could be saved . 如果大量人口比例降低室内温度20℃，冬季和夏季提出的空

调设置25℃，选择住在小房子比较容易中暑，驱车里程少，不使用的电灯和再生有价值的产品转向，大量的燃料可以节省。

Unfortunately ,these altruistic solutions have not been particular effective in recent years . 不幸的是，近年来

这些无私的解决方案并没有特别有效。After the fuel shortage of 1973 was alleviated ,people in the United States started

driving more than ever before ,demands for home heating increased ,the number of air conditioner increased ,and

industrial use of energy climbed . 1973年后，燃料短缺得到缓解，在美国，人们开始驾驶比以往任何时候，家庭的取暖

需求增加，空调数量增加，能源工业增长。

In the developing nations the rate of increase of energy use has risen even faster than it has in the united

States .such trends are alarming . 在发展中国家的能源使用量增加利率已经上升速度甚至超过它在美国。这种趋势令人震

惊。However ,it is unrealistic to exhort the affluent to do with less ,and it is unfair to ask the poor to accept

their lot . 然而，是不现实的劝诫富裕少花钱多办事，这是不公平的要求穷人接受他们的命运。Therefore ,planners must

search for other type of answers to the problems of energy and pollution . 因此，规划者必须寻求解决能源和污染问

题的其他答案。

- 10 -

A second approach ,which would allow use to maintain or ever increase our lavish dependency on machines ,would

be to improve and extend technological methods of reducing energy consumption and controlling pollution . 第二

种做法，这将使应用，以维持或不断提高我们的机器奢侈的依赖，将是改善和扩大对减少能源消耗和控制污染的技术方法。Is it

reasonable to expect success from such effort ?期望这种努力的成功是否合理？How difficult and controversial this

question is ! 多么困难和具有争议的问题!Some people feel that technological solutions can solve environmental

problems . 有些人认为，技术解决方案，可以解决环境问题.They argue ,for example that scientists and engineer can build

large comfortable pollution ——free automobiles that use energy efficiently . 他们认为，例如科学家和工程师可以

建设大型舒适的无污染的有效使用能源的汽车。Such solutions ,they say ,simply require time . 这样的解决方案，他们

说，只是时间问题。

These technical argument may be valid ,but most scientists do not believe that we have the time to wait for

their realization . 这些技术参数可能是有效的，但大多数科学家并不认为我们有时间去等待他们的实现。Automotive smog

is a serious health promblem right now ,and priceless energy supplies are dwindling at an alarming rate . 汽车

烟雾是一个严重的健康后顾之忧现在，和无价的能源供应正在以惊人的速度减少。Perhaps the most promising solution to

energy conservation and reduction of pollution involves some compromise——a union of technical ,social ,and

economical changes . 也许最有希望的解决方案，节约能源，减少污染是涉及一些妥协—— 一种技术，社会和经济变革联盟。

If some significant technical improvements can be realized ,and if people will accept some changes in their patterns

of living ,only a small fraction of the energy used today will be needed and only a small fraction of the pollution

will be produced ,with very little loss of comfort or convenience . 如果一些重大的技术改进才能实现，如果人们接

受他们的生活模式的一些变化，只有今天使用的能源的一小部分，将需要只有一小部分污染将生产，损失非常少舒适和方便.For

example ,small car can operate with one –third the energy consumption of large ones . 例如，小型车仅需大型车的

三分之一能源消耗就可以运作If people used carpools with three passengers to a car ,a small private automobile would

become as efficient as a bus . 如果人们使用3名乘客的汽车，小型私人汽车将变得像公共汽车高效用车。A well-built house

with solar collectors installed to carry some of the heating load can easily be built to consume only one quarter

of the fuel used in the average home built today . 要建造一座安装有太阳能集热器来吸收热能而能够一个只消费普通家

庭使用的燃料的四分之一的房子在今天是很容易的。Moreover ,the savings in fuel bills would easily pay for the

additional constriction cost within a short period of time . 此外，节省燃料的资金很容易一段时期内要支付的额外费

用。But few solar heated house are being built ,partly because people wish to avoid high initial costs ,and partly

because social attitudes are not responsive to these changes . 但很少正在建造的太阳能集热房子，部分原因是人们希

望避免高初始成本，部分原因是社会这些变化没有回应。

Unit 25

Thermal Pollution热污染

The amount of heat that must be removed from an electrical generating facility is quite large.必须从电力

发电设备散除的热量是相当大的。 A one-million-kilowatt plant running at 40 percent efficiency would heat 10 million

liters of water by 35℃ every hour. 一台百万千瓦级设备以40%的效率运行一个小时可以将1000万公升水加热升高35℃. It

is not surprising that such large quantities of heat, added to aquatic systems cause ecological disruptions. 并

不奇怪，这样庞大数量的热量增加到水环境中造成生态系统的破坏。 The term thermal pollution has been used to describe

these heat effects. （一般）用术语热污染来描述这些热效应。

The processes of life involve chemical reaction, and as a rough approximation, the rate of a chemical reaction

doubles for every rise in temperature of 10℃. 生命的作用包含着化学反应，粗略估计，温度每升高10℃，化学反应速

度就加快两倍。If our body temperature rises by as much as 5℃, which would make a body temperature of 42℃,the fever

may be fatal. 如果我们的体温升高多达5℃，使体温变为42℃，这样的发烧可能是致命的。 What then happens to our system

when the outside air temperature rise or falls by about 10℃? 那么当室外空气温度上升或下降约10℃时我们的（身体）

系统会发生什么变化呢？ We adjust by internal regulatory mechanisms that maintain a constant body temperature. 我

们通过调整内部调节机制来保持体温的恒定。This ability is characteristic of warm-blooded animals, such as mammals

and birds. 这种能力是温血动物特有的，如哺乳动物和鸟类动物 In contrast, non-mammalian aquatic organisms such as fish

- 11 -

are unable to regulate their body temperatures as efficiently as warm-blooded animals. 与此相反，非哺乳动物如鱼

这样的水生生物则不能像温血动物那样有效地调节体温。 How then does a fish respond to increases in temperature? All

its body processes speed up, and its need for oxygen and its rate of respiration therefore rise. 那么，鱼如何应

对气温的升高呢？它所有的生命作用都加快，对氧气的需求和呼吸速率也随着升高。 The increased need for oxygen is

especially serious, since hot water has smaller capacity for holding dissolved oxygen than cold water. 对氧气的

需求增加尤为严重，因为热水溶解氧量比冷水的能力小。 Above some maximum tolerable temperature, death occurs from

failure of the nervous system, the respiration system, or essential cell processes.超过最高的承受温度，死亡会因

为神经系统、呼吸系统或者基本细胞作用的失败而发生。 Almost no species of fish common to the United States can survive

in waters warmer than 34℃. 美国常见的鱼类几乎都不能在34度以上的温水中生存。

In general, not only the fish but also entire aquatic ecosystems are rather sensitively affected by temperature

changes. 一般情况下，不仅仅鱼类，整个水生生态系统都相当敏感地受温度变化的影响。Any disruption of the food chain,

for example may upset the entire system. 任何食物链中断，有可能会扰乱整个系统。Higher temperatures often prove to

be more hospitable for pathogenic organisms, and thermal pollution may therefore convert a low incidence of fish

disease to a massive fish kill as the pathogens become more virulent and the fish less resistant. 较高的温度往

往被证实为病原微生物更喜爱（的环境），所以热污染因此可以将低的发病率鱼病转化为大量鱼类致死鱼病，同时病原体变得更

加致命，而鱼类变得更无抵抗力。Such situations have long been known in the confined environments of farm and hatchery

ponds, which can warm up easily because the total amount of water involved is small. 这种情况早就在饲养场和孵化

池的环境中就发现了，这种环境因为相关的总水份很少所以温度很容易升高。As thermal pollution in larger bodies of water

increases, so will the potential for increased loss of fish by disease.随着热污染在水体中更大的群体内不断增加，

会增加对鱼类疾病的潜在损失。

Aquatic ecosystems near power facilities are subject not only to the effects of an elevated average temperature

but also to the thermal shocks of unnaturally rapid temperature changes. 电力设施附近的水生生态系统不仅受到的平

均气温升高的影响，而且也受到非自然规律的快速温度变化所产生热冲击的影响。Thus, the development of cold-water

species is hindered by hot water, and the development of hot-water species is upset by the unpredictable flow of

heat. 因此，冷水物种的发展被热水所妨碍，热水物种的发展被不稳定的热流动所扰乱。Power plants are usually located near

population center, and many cities dump sewage into rivers. 发电厂一般位于人口中心地带，（产生）许多城市污水排放

入河流里面。 Since sewage decomposition is dependent on oxygen, hot rivers are less able to cleanse themselves than

cold ones. 由于（污水中）污染物的分解依靠氧，因此热河流的自净能力较冷河流的差。The combination of thermal pollution

with increased nutrients from undecomposed sewage can lead to rapid and excessive algal growth. 热污染与污水中

增加的未分解营养物结合起来会导致藻类快速和过度生长。Therefore, thermal pollution imposes the unhappy choice of

dirtier rivers or more expensive sewage treatment plants. 因此，热污染强迫（我们）作要么肮脏河流要么更昂贵的污

水处理厂的不愉快选择。

Synthetic poisons, too, become more dangerous to fish as the water temperature rises. 随着水温的升高，合成

毒性物也变得对鱼类更危险。 First of all toxic effects are accelerated at higher temperatures.首先在更高的温度下

所有毒性作用会加速。 Second warm water favors increased growth of plant varieties such as algae.其次喜温水生物

会加快生长速度，比如水藻。 The algae tend to collect in the powerplants condensers and reduce water flow efficiency.

藻类往往趋向于聚集在发电厂的冷凝器里，（在这里它们会）降低水的流动效率。The electric company responds by

periodically introducing chemical poisons into the cooling system to clean the pipes. 电力公司则采取定期向冷却

系统中注入化学毒物来清洗那些小管作响应。These poisons are then mixed with the downstream effluent.然后这些毒物

和下游污水混合。 Additionally , domestic and industrial water consumers are more apt to discharge treatment chemicals

into water with high algae concentrations than into clean water. 此外，相对于清洁水体，家庭和工业的用水消费者更

倾向于把未经处理的化学药品排放到富含藻类水体中。Thus in warm water, not only are fish less likely to resist poisons

but they are also likely to be exposed to them more. 因此，在温水中，不仅鱼类不太可能抵抗毒药，反而它们还会更加

深受其害。

The second Low of Thermodynamics assures us that we cannot invent a process to avoid the production of excess

heat. 热力学第二定律使我们确信，我们不能创造一种工序去避免产生额外的热量。 We can however reduce the amount of heat

- 12 -

wasted or we can put it to good use.但我们可以减少热的损耗或者把它很好地加以利用。

mammals 哺乳动物 respiration 呼吸

virulent 致命的；极毒的 hatchery pond 鱼塘

Unit 26

Summary of EIA简述环境影响评估

1、 Definition定义

An action is used in this text in the sense of any engineering of industrial project,legislative

proposal,policy,programme or operational procedure with environmental implications.立法建议，政策，方案或业务程

序与环境的影响这类的行动对于任何工业项目工程是没有意义的。An environment impact assessment is an activity designed

to identify and predict the impact of an action on the biogeophysical environment and on man’s health and

well-being,and to interpret and communicate information about the impact. 一个环境影响评估是为了确定一个活动，

并预测了对生物地球物理环境和对人的健康和福利的行动受到影响，并解释和传播有关的影响的资料。

2、 operational procedures业务程序

(1)Environmental impact assessment should be an integral part of all planning for major actions,and should be carried

out at the same time as engineering,economic,and sociopolitical assessment. 环境影响评估应是所有规划的主要行动

的组成部分，应当在工程，经济和社会政治同时进行评估。

(2)In order to provide guidelines for environmental impact assessments,national goals and policies should be

established which take environmental considerations into account;these goals and policies should be widely

promulgated. 为了提供环境影响评估，国家目标和政策的指导方针应当建立考虑到环境因素，这些目标和政策应广泛公布。

(3)The institutional arrangements for the process of environmental impact assessment should be determined and made

public. 为环境影响评估进程的体制安排应确定并予以公布。Here it is essential that the role of the various participants

(decision-maker, assessor, proponent, reviewer,other expert advisors,the public and inter-national bodies) be

designated.各种参与者的作用（决策者，评估师，提议者，评论家，其他专家顾问，公众和机构的国家机构）被指定是基本的。

It is also important that timetables for the impact assessment process be established,so that proposed actions are

not held up unduly and the assessor and the reviewer are not so pressed that they undertake only superficial analyses.

同样重要的是，对影响评估进程的时间表必须建立起来，以便计划行动没有被过度阻挡还有评估和审阅不用那么催促以致他们

只是表面上进行分析。

(4) An environmental impact assessment should contain the following : 环境影响评估应包含以下:

1.

2.

3.

4.

a description of the proposed action and of alternatives ;

a prediction of the nature and magnitude of environmental effects (both positive and negative );

an identification of human concerns ;

a listing of impact indicators as well as the methods used to determine their scales of magnitude and relative

weights ;

影响指标以及用于确定其严重程度和规模的相对测量方法

5. a prediction of the magnitudes of the impact indicators and of the total impact, for the project and for

alternatives;

一个指标的影响程度和总体影响预测，项目和替代品

6.

7.

recommendations for acceptance, remedial action , acceptance of one or more of the alternatives, or rejection;

给出建议来获得方案的认同，或者修改行动，替代方案的一个或者更多的认同，或者反对

recommendation for inspection procedures.

视察程序的建议

- 13 -

预行动和代替品的说明

预测影响性质严重的环境影响（包括积极和消极）

人类所关心的一个鉴定

(5) Environmental impact assessments should include study of all relevant physical, biological, economic, and social

factors.

环境影响评价应该包含所有相关的物理，生物，经济和社会因素的研究。

(6) At a very early stage in the process of environmental impact assessment , inventories should be prepared of

relevant sources of data and of technical expertise.

在环境影响评价的过程中一个很早的时期，详细目录应该要准备科技专门技术与数据的相关来源。

(7) Environmental impact assessments should include study of alternatives, including that of no action.

环境影响评价应该含有替代方案的研究，包括不采取任何行动

(8) Environmental impact assessments should include a spatial frame of reference much larger than the area encompassed

by the action, e.g. larger than the ‘factory fence’ in the case of an engineering project.

环境影响评价应该包括比行动所占据的地区还要大很多的空间参与框架，例如，对于工程项目来讲，则应该比工厂围墙大很多。

(9)Environmental impact assessments should include both mid-term and long-term predictions of impacts. In the case

of engineering projects, for example, the following time-frames should be covered: 环境影响评估应包括中期和长期

影响的长期预测。在工程项目的情况下，例如，下面的时间范围应包括：

①during construction; 施工期间;

②immediately after completion of the development; 后发展的完成;

③two to three decades later. 二，三十年后。

(10) Environmental impacts should be assessed as the difference between the future state of the environment if the

action took place and the state if no action occurred. 对环境的影响，应评为之间未来的环境状况的差别，如果采取了

行动，国家如果不采取行动的发生。

(11) Estimates of both the magnitude and the importance of environmental impacts should be obtained. ( Some large

effects may not be very important to society, and vice versa.) 两者的规模和环境影响的重要性应获得预算。 （一些

大的影响可能不是很重要，社会，反之亦然.）

(12) Methodologies for impact assessment should be selected which are appropriate to the nature of the action, the

data base, and the geographic setting. Approaches which are too complicated or too simple should both be avoided.

对影响评估的方法，应选择一些适当的行动的性质，数据基础，地理环境。方法又过于复杂或过于简单，既要避免。

(13) The affected parties should be clearly identified, together with the major impacts for each party. 受影响

的各方应明确确定，连同每一方的重大影响。

ch 研究

Research should be encouraged in the following areas: 应鼓励以下几个方面的研究：

(1) Post-audit reviews environmental impact assessments for accuracy and completeness in order that knowledge

of assessment methods may be improved.为确保准确性和完整性，环境影响评估后进行审查，以使评估方法的知识

加以改进。(No systematic post-audit programme has as yet been initiated in any country with experience in

impact assessment.) 迄今尚未有任何国家开展有经验的系统化的后审查计划。

(2) Study of methods suitable for assessing the environmental effects of social and institutional programmes,

and of other activities of the non-construction type.环境影响评价在社会体制方案和在非建筑类型进行的其他

活动的可行性的研究。

(3) Study of criteria for environmental quality. 环境质量标准的研究。

(4) Study of quantifying value judgments on the relative worth of various components of environmental quality.

对环境质量的各个组成部分的相对价值判断的量化研究。

(5) Development of modeling techniques for impact assessments, with special emphasis on combined physical,

biological, socio-economic systems. 影响评估的模型技术，特别是结合物理，生物，社会经济系统的技术发展。

(6) Study of sociological effects and impacts. 社会效应和影响的研究。

(7) Study of methods for communicating the results of highly technical assessments to the non-specialist.

向非专业人士传达高技术评估结果的方法研究。

- 14 -

Unit 27

Text: Impact of wastewater Effluents on water Quality of River(废水排放对河流水质量的影响)

Predicting Effects of Point Source Discharges预测点源排放的影响

It is common to use mathematical models to estimate how point source discharges influence

Concentrations within receiving waters. Although the residuals have been modeled in streams ,

Lakes and estuaries,this introduction considers only rges and stream-flows are considered to be

constant and steady-state conditions are assumed. It is also assumed throughout that only a single point source

is involved.

这是通常使用的数学模型来评估点源排放的影响。承受水域范围内的浓度。尽管残余污染物排放到河流， 湖泊和港湾，这一章

只介绍河流。 假定排放物和污染流被认为是持续和稳定状态下。它假定也只涉及一个单一的点源

Models for predicting how the dischargeof conservative substance affects stream quality are invariably based on

the law of conservation of mass , also referred to as the “mass balance equation.”Chlorides and total dissolved

solids are the indicators modeled most shown in Figure 1 , am mass balance analysis for conservative

substances uses two equations, one for the conservation of flow and one for the conservation of residuals. Solving

these equations. 根据质量守恒定律预测传统污染物质排放如何影响流质量的模型，也被称为“质量平衡方程。”氯化物和总

溶解固体，是最常用的指标模型。如图1，传统污染物质的质量平衡分析使用两个公式，一种是流动污染物和一种是残留的污

染物。求解这些方程。

Discharge :Q1 at concentration C1 (排放物:Q1浓度为C1)

●

Upstream : (上游) Downstream(下游)

Q2 at concentration C2 (Q2浓度为C2) Q at concentration C(Q浓度为C)

Conservation of streamflow :(流量守恒)Q=Q1+Q2

Conservation of mass:(质量守恒)QC=Q1C1+Q2C2

FIGURE1(图1) steady-state mass balance analysis for a conservation of residuals downstream of the discharged

to a stream.(排放到河流下游的残留浓度的稳态质量平衡分析)

Simultaneously yields C ,the concentration of residuals downstream of the discharge point:(合并产量C,排放点下

游的残留浓度)

Where Q1=flowrate upstream of the discharge (cfs )(上游污染物排放流量)

Q2=rate of wastewater flow (cfs )(废水流量)

C1=residuals concentration upstream of the discharge (mg/L)(上游污染的残留浓度)

C2=residuals concentration of the wastewater (mg/L)(废水残留浓度)

The units shown are illustrative；所示的单位是有说明的；other flowrate and concentration units can also be used.

其他流量和浓度单位，也可以使用.Because the substance is conservative and streamflow is constant ,the increase in

concentration caused by the discharge is independent of the distance downstream.因为物质守恒，水流量恒定，由排

放产生的浓度增加是与下游的距离无关的。This analysis assumes the effluent is completely mixed once it enters the

stream and the concentration of residuals is uniform throughout any stream cross section. 这一分析表明污水一旦

进入水流就被完全混合，而且残液的浓度在整个溪流截面分布均匀。 Equation(1) is used to determine how chloride redution

by the Margarita Salt Company influences the concentration of chlorides in the Cedro River. 方程（1）用于确定在

- 15 -

切德罗河中由于加入镁盐，氯化物的减少如何影响氯化物浓度。

The next level of modeling complexity is for a substance that decreases in concenration in accordance with

“first-order reaction kinetics.”下一级模型的复杂性是因为物质的浓度依据“一级反应动力学”下降。Underlying

physical or biochemical caus of the decrease is not treated explicitly . 潜在物理的或生化因素引起的下降没有被明

确处理。At any instant,the rate of decay is assumed proportional to the amount of substance present;任何情况下，

腐烂率都是根据现有物质量来设定比例的。the proportionality factor is called the rate constant. 该比例因子称为速

率常数。As indicated in the discussion of equation(2). 正如在公式（2）讨论。coliform bacteria are predicted using

a first-order reaction model. 大肠杆菌采用一级反应模型预测。More generally,a first-order has the form一般地，

一级的形式是

C(x)=C

0

e

-k(x/μ)

-k(x/μ)

(2)

C(x)=C

0

e

其中x =下游排放物的距离（英里）

(2)

Where x=distance downstream of the discharge(miles)

C(x)=residuals concentration at location (mg/L)

C(x)=残差的位置浓度（毫克/升）

C

0

=residuals concentration at x=0(mg/L)

C

0

=当x=0时的残留浓度

μ=velocity of streamflow (miles/day)

μ=的径流速度（公里/日）

k=empirically determined rate constant (per day)

K=经验决定的速度常数（每天）

The concentration at x=0 is calculated using the mass balance concepts yielding equation(1).

当x = 0的浓度是利用质量平衡的概念产生的方程（1）

The value of C

0

is the total mass of residuals per time just below the discharge point divide by the volume of

streamflow per time at that point.

C0值是每一次在排放物下方的残留物除以每一次径流在这一点上流量体积。

Because stream velocity is assumed constant, (x/μ) represents the “time of travel ” below the discharge location.

由于流速度假设不变，（x /μ）表示在排放物下方“流过的时间”。

字体要求：英文用五号字体，加粗，中文用五号字，宋体，不加粗

Unit 28

Environmental Impact Assessment of Air Quality环境影响评价空气质量

Air Quality Impact Assessment Process空气质量影响评估程序

A comprehensive assessment of a proposed project’s air quality impacts involves the following steps: 对拟议项

目的空气质量影响的评估包括以下步骤：

1. Establish background air quality levels. 建立背景空气质量水平。

2. Identify applicable air quality criteria and standard. 确定适用的空气质量标准和标准。

3. Forecast future air pollutant emissions with and without the project. 预测未来的空气污染物排放量，没有项

目。

4. Forecast future ambient air pollutant concentrations with without the project. 未经项目预测未来的空气污染

物浓度。

5. Compare predicted air quality with applicable standards. 比较适用的标准预测空气质量。

6. Modify plans, if necessary, to dial with potential air quality problems. 修改计划，如有必要，表盘，潜在的

空气质量问题。

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The first step, establishing background levels of air quality is carried out only for air quality indicators

likely to be influenced by the proposal. 第一步，建立空气质量背景水平只进行空气质量指标进行可能受到影响的建议。

For example , if the proposed proposed project were bon monoxide, and photochemical oxidants. 例如，如果所拟议

的项目有盂兰盆一氧化碳和光化学氧化剂。 In the United States, data on background air quality levels are available

from local , regional, , and state air quality management agencies , various state implementation plans proposed

in response to federal air quality laws , and EPA’s computerized data retrieval systems . 在美国，背景空气质量

水平的数据可从本地，区域和国家空气质量管理机构，各国家实施计划，针对联邦清洁空气法的建议，和EPA的计算机数据检

索系统。The EPA data include measurements from the federal Continuous Air Monitoring Program (CAMP) stations

established in the early 1960s. 美国环保局的数据包括来自联邦连续空气监测计划（营地）在60年代初设立的站测量。

Applicable air quality criteria and standards are determined in the second step of the assessment process. 在

评估过程的第二步确定适用空气质量标准和标准。The EPA has issued criteria relating levels of air pollutants to human

health and welfare. 美国环保局发布了有关人类健康和福利的空气污染物的标准水平。In the United States, standards used

in impact assessments include the national ambient air quality standards and pertinent state or local standards.

在美国，标准用于影响评估，包括有国家环境空气质量标准和有关国家或地方标准。

The NAAQS, as illustrated by carbon monoxide standards in1980,stipulate both concentration and time of exposure.

国家环境空气质量标准中，如在1980年用一氧化碳的标准来说明，规定双方的浓度和暴露时间。The CO standards require that

the average concentration for any 1-hr period be less than 9 parts of CO per million parts of ambient air. 对于

一氧化碳的标准规定，在周围的空气中一氧化碳的浓度应少于每小时每百万分之九。These CO measurements are said to have

an “averaging time” of 1-hr. The NAAQS also require average CO concentrations during any 8-hr period to be less

than 35 parts per million (ppm). 这些二氧化碳测量，据说有一个“平均时间1”小时。在国家环境空气质量还需要在任何

浓度的二氧化碳平均8小时内将低于百万分之35Limits on CO are not to be exceeded more than once per year. 对二氧

化碳的限制不得超过一次每年。As of 1980, the NAAOS applied to particulates, SOx, CO, NO2, hydrocarbons, ozone, and

lead.截至1980年，国家环境空气质量标准也适用于微粒，硫氧化物，一氧化碳，二氧化氮，碳氢化合物，臭氧和铅。The national

standards are revised periodically and up-to-date versions are obtainable from EPA. 国家标准能在美国环保处得到

最新的标准从而进行周期的修订。

In the third step of the assessment process, the proposed project’s emissions are estimated in units of weight

(or mass) per time period. 在评估过程的第三步，每段时间计划项目的排放量以重量（或质量）为单位。Procedures for

estimating emissions are reviewed in the next section.估计排放量的程序将在下一节审查评估。

The fourth stept, predicting changes in the ambient concentrations of air quality indicators due to a new

discharge, is often complex. 第四步，预测由新的排放气体引起的空气质素指标变化，往往是复杂的。In fact, sometimes

it is not carried out and the assessment considers only the increased emissions from the proposed project. 事实

上，这一步有时是不执行的，和评估只考虑计划项目增加的排放量。Reasons for not estimating concentrations include

inadequate understanding of the underlying physical and chemical processes and unwillingness to commit the time

and money needed to utilize existing forecasting procedures. 不估计浓度的原因包括：不能恰当理解基础物理和化学过

程，并不愿花必须的时间和金钱在利用现有的预测程序上。

The final steps in a comprehensive impact assessment are to compare forecasted concentrations with applicable

standards and to modify the proposed project if expected air quality degradation is unacceptable. 在一个全面的

影响评估的最后步骤是比较适用的标准预测浓度和修改建议的项目，如果预期的空气质量的恶化是不可接受的。Air-borne

residuals are commonly reduced by changing combustion processes and using emission control devices such as scrubbers

and filters. 空气传播的残差通常是通过改变燃烧过程，例如洗涤器和过滤器采用排放控制装置。 However, there are many

options for mitigating adverse air quality effects that do not involve control devices. 然而，有减轻不良的空气

质素的影响，不涉及控制装置的多种选择。 Examples include reducing the scale of a facility or changing the locations

of discharges. 例子包括减少设施的规模或改变排放的位置。

Forecasts of air pollutant emissions and concentrations are carried out at various levels of sophistication.

预测空气污染物的排放和浓度均在不同程度的成熟。 Some impact assessments are limited to quick and simple estimates

of increases in emissions. 有些影响评估限于排放量的增加快速和简单的估计。Others use elaborate computer-based

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mathematical models to translate increases in emissions into changes in concentrations at various times and places.

其他人使用复杂的计算机为基础的数学模型转化为浓度的变化在不同的时间和地点排放量的增加。

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本文标签： 废物影响包括评估产生