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Introduction to Chinese Civilizations
Yellow Emperor
The Yellow Emperor or Huangdi (also transliterated as Huang-ti and Hwang-ti) is one of the
legendary Chinese sovereigns(君主) and culture heroes included among the Three Sovereigns
and Five Emperors. Tradition holds that Huangdi reigned from 2697 to 2597 or 2696 to 2598
BC. Huangdi's cult（崇拜） was particularly prominent（著名的） in the late Warring States and
early Han period, when he was portrayed as the originator of the centralized state, a cosmic（宇宙的） ruler, and a patron（保护人） of esoteric（机密的） arts. Traditionally credited with
numerous inventions and innovations（创新）, the Yellow Emperor is now regarded as the initiator（创始人） of Chinese civilization, and said to be the ancestor of all Huaxia Chinese.
g Man
Peking Man (Chinese: 北京猿人; pinyin: Běijīng Yuánrén), Homo erectus(直立人) pekinensis,
is an example of Homo erectus. A group of fossil specimens（样品） was discovered in
1923–27 during excavations（挖掘出的古迹） at Zhoukoudian (Chou K'ou-tien)
near Beijing (written "Peking" before the adoption of the Pinyin romanization system), China.
More recently, the finds have been dated from roughly 750,000 years ago,。
bones
Oracle bones (Chinese: 甲骨; pinyin: jiǎgǔ) are pieces of shell or bone, normally from
ox scapulae （牛的肩胛骨）or turtle plastrons（海龟的贝壳）, which were used for scapulimancy（肩胛骨占卜术） or plastromancy（占星术）, respectively – a form of divination （预言）– in
ancient China, mainly during the late Shang dynasty By the Zhou dynasty, cinnabar ink and
brush became the preferred writing method, resulting in fewer carved inscriptions and often
blank oracle bones being unearthed.
The oracle bones bear the earliest known significant corpus of ancient Chinese writing and
contain important historical information such as the complete royal genealogy （王室谱系）of
the Shang dynasty. When they were discovered and deciphered（破译） in the early twentieth
century, these records confirmed the existence of the Shang, which some scholars had until
then doubted.
Anyang city is an ancient city with a history of over 3,000 years and is one of the Eight Ancient
Capitals of China. It is one of the key birthplaces of Chinese ancient culture. Here are the
primitive(原始的) caves of 25,000 years ago, the overlapping（重叠） strata （岩层）of
the Yangshao Culture, Longshan Culture and Xiaotun Culture, the memorial mausoleums of
ancient Emperor Zhuanxu and Emperor Ku over 4,000 years ago, the first library
of inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells, the birthland of Zhou Yi. And Simuwu Ding was
also found in Anyang.
Duke of Zhou
The Duke of Zhou was a member of the Zhou dynasty who played a major role in
consolidating (统一)the kingdom established by his elder brother Wu. He was renowned in
Chinese history for acting as a capable and loyal regent for his young nephew King Cheng and
successfully suppressed （镇压）a number of rebellions（叛逆）, placating （安抚）the Shang nobility with titles and positions. He is also a Chinese culture hero credited with
writing the I Ching and the Book of Poetry, establishing the Rites of Zhou（周礼）, and creating
the yayue of Chinese classical music.
e of Heaven(天命)
The Mandate of Heaven is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the
legitimacy（正统的） predicated(基础) on the conduct of the ruler in question. The Mandate（授权） of Heaven postulates（假定） that heaven would bless the authority of a just ruler, as
defined by the Five Confucian Relationships, but would be displeased with a despotic ruler
（暴君）and would withdraw （拿走）its mandate（任期）, leading to the overthrow of that ruler.
The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best. The mere fact of a
leader having been overthrown is itself indication that he has lost the Mandate of Heaven.
. The concept of the Mandate of Heaven was first used to support the rule of the kings of
the Zhou Dynasty, and their overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty. It was used throughout
the history of China support the rule of the Emperors of China, including 'foreign' dynasties
such as the Qing Dynasty.
and Autumn Period
The Spring and Autumn Period was a period in Chinese history that took place from
approximately 771 until 476 BC (or by some authorities until 403 BC) in the alluvial plain（冲积平原） of theYellow River, the Shandong Peninsula and the river valleys of the Huai and Han.
It roughly corresponds to （相当于）the first half of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Its name comes
from the Spring and Autumn Annals, a chronicle（编年史） of the state of Lu
between 722 and
479 BC, which tradition associates with Confucius. The period can also be further divided into
three sub-periods:
warring state period
Lasting from 475 A.D. to 221 A.D., the warring state period is one of the most important period
time of the entire Chinese civilization. The warring state period witnessed the most severe and
long-lasting national secession,when the vassal states fought against each period
of time was amid the Spring and Autunm period and the Qin this period of time,
hundred schools of thought aroused, with economic and techenical development.
ius and Analects
Confucius (551–479 BC) was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the
Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history. The philosophy of Confucius emphasized
personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity.
The analects is one of the Confucion classics. The Analects is a work of quotation, which
mainly records the speeches and actions of Confucius and some of his disciples. It mainly
recorded the politicalthoughts, ethical principles and educational methods.
Laozi was a philosopher of ancient China, best known as the author of the Tao Te Ching (often
simply referred to as Laozi). His association with the Tao Te Ching has led him to be
traditionally considered the founder of philosophical Taoism. He is also revered as a deity in
most religious forms of Taoist philosophy, which often refers to Laozi as Taishang Laojun, or
"One of the Three Pure Ones".
Mozi, original name Mo Di, was a Chinese philosopher during the Hundred Schools of Thought
period. Born in Tengzhou, Shandong Province, China, he founded the school of Mohism, and
argued strongly against Confucianism and Daoism. Mozi is known by children throughout
Chinese culture by way of the Thousand Character Classic, which records that he was
saddened when he saw dyeing of pure white silk, which embodied his conception of austerity.
s
Mencius(372 – 289 BCE) was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous
Confucian after Confucius himself. Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko,
was born in the State of Zou. He was an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of
the principal interpreters of Confucianism. Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius' grandson,
Zisi. Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled China for forty years to offer advice to
rulers for reform.
Xunzi (312–230 BC) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher who lived during the Warring
States Period and contributed to one of the Hundred Schools of Thought. Xunzi believed
man's inborn tendencies need to be curbed through education and ritual, counter to
Mencius's view that man is innately good. Educated in the state of Qi, Xunzi was
associated with the Confucian school, but his philosophy has a pragmatic flavour
compared to Confucian optimism. Xunzi was one of the most sophisticated thinkers of his
time, and was the teacher of Li Si and Han Fei Zi.
Fei Zi
Han Fei Zi (280–233 BC) was a Chinese philosopher who, along with Li Si, Gongsun Yang,
Shen Dao and Shen Buhai, developed the doctrine of Legalism. Unlike the other famed
philosophers of the time, Han Fei was a member of the ruling aristocracy, having been born
into the ruling family of the state of Han during the end phase of the Warring States Period.
First Emperor
秦始皇
Qin Shihuangdi（ 259 BC – 210 BC） was the king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246
BC to 221 BC, during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified
China in 221 BC. He ruled until his death in 210 BC at the age of 49.
Calling himself the First Emperor after China's unification, Qín Shǐ Huáng is a pivotal
figure in Chinese history, ushering in nearly two millennia of imperial rule. After unifying China,
he and his chief advisor Li Si passed a series of major economic and political reforms. He
undertook gigantic projects, including building and unifying various sections of the Great Wall
of China, the now famous city-sized mausoleum guarded by the life-sized Terracotta Army, and
a massive national road system, all at the expense of numerous lives. To ensure stability, Qin
Shi Huang outlawed and burned many books and buried some scholars alive.
秦始皇是中国历史上，第一个采用君主专制制度，及第一个中央集权统一国家的创立者，也是中国历史上第一个使用―皇帝‖称号的君主 。统一中国后推行多项政策 ，例如书同文，车同轨，统一度量衡等对后世影响深远的政策 。另一方面，秦始皇在位期间亦进行多项大型工程，包括修筑长城、阿房宫、骊山陵等，百姓徭役甚重。秦朝建立后所推行的政策及典章制度，对日后中国历史的影响，可说是广泛而深远。
otta Warrior
兵马俑
The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi
Huang, the first Emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in
210–209 BC and whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.
The figures, dating from around the late third century BC, were discovered in 1974 by some
local farmers in Lintong District, Xi'an, Shaanxi province. The figures vary in height according
to their roles, with the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots and
horses. Current estimates are that in the three pits containing the Terracotta Army there were
over 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of
which are still buried in the pits near by Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum. Other terracotta
non-military figures were also found in other pits and they include officials, acrobats,
strongmen and musicians.
秦始皇兵马俑（Terracotta Army），又称秦始皇陵兵马俑、秦兵马俑，位于中国陕西省西安市临潼区东5公里的下河村。秦始皇陵建于公元前246年至公元前208年，历时39年，是中国秦朝皇帝秦始皇的陵墓，也是中国第一个规模宏大、布局讲究且保存完好的帝王陵寝，现存陵冢高76米，陵园布置仿秦都咸阳，分内外两城，内城周长2.5公里，外城周长6.3公里。1987年，秦始皇陵及兵马俑坑被联合国教科文组织批准列入《世界遗产名录》，并被誉为―世界第八大奇迹‖。
r Wu of the Han(Han Weidi)
汉武帝
Emperor Wu of Han（156–87 BC) was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China,
ruling as such for 54 years, from 141 BC to 87 BC. Wudi's reign resulted in or the vast
territorial expansion, development of a strong and centralized state resulting from his
governmental re-organization, including his promotion of Confucian doctrines. In the field of
historical social and cultural studies, Wudi is known for his religious innovations and patronage
of the poetic and musical arts, including development of the imperial Music Bureau into a
prestigious entity. It was also during his reign that cultural contact with western Eurasia was
greatly increased, directly or indirectly. Many new crops and other items were introduced to
China during his reign.
As a military campaigner, Emperor Wu led Han China through its greatest expansion—at its
height, the Empire's borders spanned from modern Kyrgyzstan in the west, to Korea in the
east, and to northern Vietnam in the south.
汉武帝刘彻，雄才大略，文治武功，功积显赫，和秦始皇被后世并称为―秦皇汉武‖，被评价为中国历史上最伟大的皇帝之一。汉武帝的思想积极进取，具为有前瞻性，为朝廷以至社会带了新思维，于实得权力后进行了多项大刀阔斧的改革，深远地影响着后世。
对内政策上，汉武帝用人为才，不问出身，又开创了察举制，以致该时期培养及出现了大量名臣良将；他又颁布《推恩令》，和平地削减了诸侯的权力及势力，另外采纳罢黜百家，独尊儒术，成为了至今的中国社会主流思想。对外政策上，汉武帝一改汉高祖刘邦白登之围后世代朝廷奉行的和亲传统，以强势态度积极地对付匈奴，发动第二阶段汉匈战争，先后收复了西汉初年的
多处领土，基本解除了秦朝以来匈奴于中国西北部的威胁；汉武帝又大幅度地开疆拓土，先后吞灭了东瓯国、南越国、闽越国、卫满朝鲜及夜郎国等等，奠定了现代的中国疆域；同时两次派遣张骞出使西域，开辟丝绸之路，将中华帝国不论在民生、经济、文化或者军事上，都推上了空前的高峰，其任期被称为汉武盛世，为纵贯汉朝的极盛时期。然而，由于连年征战，以致汉武帝晚年时国家外强中干，对人民造成了相当大的负担，加上晚年性情反复无常，而且迷信多疑，致使了巫蛊之祸的发生，为其普遍整体正面评价留下负面部份。驾崩前两年，汉武帝在轮台下道《罪己诏》，重拾文景之治时期的与民生息的政策，为后来的昭宣中兴奠定基础。
Qian
Sima Qian (c. 145 or 135 BC – 86 BC) was a Chinese historian of the Han dynasty. He is
considered the father of Chinese historiography for his work, the Records of the Grand
Historian, a jizhuanti-style (纪传体) general history of China, covering more than two thousand
years from the Yellow Emperor to his time, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. Although
he worked as the Court Astrologer （太史令), later generations refer to him as the Grand
Historian (太史公) for his monumental work.
司马迁（145BC-86BC），字子长，左冯翊夏阳（今陕西韩城）人（一说山西河津人），是中国古代著名的史学家和文学家。他撰写的《史记》被公认为是中国史书的典范，因此被后世尊称为史迁、太史公。
u
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation.[1]
Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources. What little is known of
their titles and names comes from Chinese transliterations of their language.
The identity of the ethnic core of Xiongnu has been a subject of varied hypotheses, because
only a few words, mainly titles and personal names, were preserved in the Chinese sources.
Proposals by scholars include Mongolic,Turkic, Yeniseian, Tocharian, Iranian, and Uralic. They
also possibly practiced Tengriism. The name Xiongnu may be cognate to the name Huns, but
the evidence for this is controversial.
匈奴是一个或两个古代生活在欧亚大陆的游牧民族，他们在蒙古中心建立国家（前209年-48年）。根据语言研究方面的推论，蒙古国内有观点认为匈奴是现在蒙古族的直接祖先。也有人认为这一观点是错误的，蒙古人的直系祖先应为蒙兀室韦的一个分系。到了后来内迁中原的匈奴人在十六国时期成立地方政权，如汉赵、北凉、胡夏等。
中国古籍中讲述的匈奴是在汉朝时称雄中原以北的一个强大的游牧民族，前215年被逐出黄河河套地区，历经东汉时分裂，南匈奴进入中原内附，北匈奴从漠北西迁，中间经历了约三百年。匈奴影响了当时的中国政局，《史记》、《汉书》等留下了匈奴情况的一些记载。
ada(Lesser Vehicle)
小乘佛教
Hinayana is a Sanskrit and Pāli term literally meaning: the "Inferior Vehicle", "Deficient
Vehicle", the "Abandoned Vehicle", or the "Defective Vehicle", applied to some schools of early
Buddhism. The term appeared around the 1st or 2nd century. Hīnayāna is contrasted with
Mahāyāna, which means the "Great Vehicle." There are a variety of interpretations as to who
or what the term "Hīnayāna" refers to. The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th
century, distinguishes Mahayana from Hīnayāna as follows:
Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the
five offenses, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the
bodhisattvas and read the Mahayana sutras are called the Mahayanists, while those who do
not perform these are called the Hinayanists.
na(Greater Vehicle)
大乘佛教 Mahayana
大乘佛教，佛教两大教派传统之一。大乘佛教亦称―大乘教‖，略称―大乘‖，梵文音译―摩诃衍那‖、―摩诃衍‖等。因能运载无量众生到达菩提涅磐之彼岸，成就佛果，故名。在佛教的声闻、缘觉和菩萨乘的三乘教法中，菩萨乘（或佛乘）为大乘教法。大乘佛教的主要传承者是汉传佛教，流传于中国大陆、港澳地区、台湾地区、日本、韩国、新加坡、越南等地。北传佛教晚些时候则传入西藏和蒙古等地为藏传佛教。
Mahayana is one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification
of Buddhist philosophies and practice. Mahayana Buddhism originated in India, and some
scholars believe that it was initially associated with one of the oldest historical branches of
Buddhism, the Mahāsāṃghika.
The Mahayana tradition is the largest major tradition of Buddhism existing today, with 56% of
practitioners, compared to 38% for Theravāda and 6% for Vajrayāna. According to the
teachings of Mahayana traditions, "Mahayana " also refers to the path of seeking complete
enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, also called "Bodhisattvayāna", or the
"Bodhisattva Vehicle."
三乘说
接受释迦牟尼佛陀四圣谛教法的弟子，因为是从佛亲闻教法，称为声闻乘，修习四圣谛的离苦和解脱之妙法，以成就阿罗汉果为最高目标。没有亲自遇到佛的教导，但以自己的努力与智慧，思维十二因缘而得到证果的，称为独觉乘或缘觉乘，成为辟支佛是他们的目标。这两类佛教徒，偏于重视自己的清净解脱和自我完善，但缺乏帮助他人解脱离苦而成就圣果之慈悲心，但求小果，故称为小乘。大乘佛教则提倡佛弟子应当以佛陀为榜样，以自利利他成就佛果为目标。发起帮助他人解脱和觉悟的菩提心是成佛的种子，这类佛教徒被称为菩萨。菩萨道是成佛的真正道路，因此大乘又称为菩萨乘。
land
Pure Land is another name for one of the many the Buddha Lands. Actually, the original name
was the Utmost Bliss(极乐世界) and Pure Buddha Land（清净佛土）. It is the place where
sentient beings that have the similar deeds come to learn and cultivate their minds to become
the future Buddha and are being supported by the Buddha’s vows and great compassion（慈悲）.
(or Zen)
Zen is a school of Mahayana Buddhism（大乘佛教） that developed in China during the 6th
century as Chán Zen emphasizes the attainment of enlightenment（达到顿悟） and the
personal expression of direct insight （直觉）in the Buddhist teachings
24Li Bai(or Li Bo,or Li Po)
one of the most brilliant poets in the history of Chinese poetry,a leader in the mid-Tang
Dynasty that is often called the "Golden Age." As a romantic poet, he dared to free himself
from old rules and conventions ,and created many masterpieces which is esteemed all the
time(both home and abroad).
Fu(or Tu Fu)
A great Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. Along with Li Bai (Li Bo), he is frequently called the
greatest of the Chinese poets(LiDu). His greatest ambition was to serve his country as a
successful civil servant, but his life just like the whole country seemed to have suffered
countless frustrations such as An Lushan Rebellion. He has been called the "Poet-Historian"
and the "Poet-Sage" by Chinese critics
Road
The Silk Road or Silk Route is a modern term referring to a historical network of interlinking
trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian(亚非欧) landmass that connected East, South, and
Western Asia with the Mediterranean （地中海）and European world, as well as parts of North
and East Africa， the Silk Road gets its name from the Chinese silk trade along it, which began
during the Han Dynasty。
Grand Canal of the Sui
The Grand Canal, also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal, is the longest canal or
artificial river in the ng at Beijing, it passes through Tianjin and the provinces of
Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the city ofHangzhou linking the Yellow River and
Yangtze River. The oldest parts of the canal date back to the 5th century BC, although the
various sections were finally combined during the Sui Dynasty (581–618 AD).
r Taizong of the Tang(or Tang Taizong,or Li
Shimin)
The second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China,He is typically considered as one of the
greatest emperors in Chinese history. Throughout the rest of Chinese history, Emperor
Taizong's reign（统治） was regarded as the exemplary model (典范)against which all other
emperors were measured, and his "Reign of Zhenguan"（贞观之治） was considered a golden
age of Chinese history and required study for future crown princes
s Wu of the Tang(or Wu Zetian)
AS the only empress regnant in China's history, Wu Zetian is a controversial historical figure
for her political achievements and her oppressive, iron-fist rule. She served as a de facto ruler
of the country for nearly half a century.
us Consort Yang(or Yang Guifei)
Yang Guifei (Yang Kuei-fey) concubine of the Tang emperor Xuanzong (Hsüan-tsung;
685-762). Renowned beauty of Chinese history. Of humble origins, she is said to have won the
favor and passion of the emperor to the extent that he eventually began to neglect state affairs.
She adopted An Lu-shan, a general of Turkic origin, as her son and helped him win power at
court. A power struggle over control of the central government between An Lu-shan and
Yang’s brother led to An’s rebellion in 755. Fleeing the capital before the rebels captured it,
angry royal guards, who blamed Yang Guifei and her brother for the rebellion, forced
Xuanzong to order their execution. The emperor soon abdicated.
（Xi Xia）
The state existed from 1038 to 1227 AD in what are now the northwestern Chinese
provinces of Ningxia, Gansu, easternQinghai, northern Shaanxi, northeastern Xinjiang,
southwest Inner Mongolia, and southernmost Outer Mongolia, measuring about eight hundred
thousand square kilometers. The state suffered from devastating destruction by
the Mongols who founded Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), including most of its written records
and architecture. Its founders and history therefore remained controversial until recent
research conducted both in the West and within China. They occupied the area of important
trade route between North China and Central Asia, the Hexi Corridor. The Western Xia made
significant achievements in literature, art, music, and architecture, which was characterized as
"shining and sparkling". Their extensive stance among the other empires of the Liao, Song,
and Jin was attributable to their effective military organizations that integrated cavalry, chariots,
archery, shields, artillery (cannons carried on the back of camels), and amphibious troops for
combats on land and water.
An-Lushan Rebellion
The An Lushan Rebellion was a devastating rebellion against the Tang Dynasty of China. The
rebellion overtly began on December 16, 755, when general An Lushan declared himself
emperor in Northern China, thus establishing a rival Yan Dynasty, and ended when Yan fell on
February 17, 763 (although the effects lasted past this). This event is also known (especially in
Chinese historiography) as the An-Shi Rebellion or An-Shi Disturbances, as it continued after
An Lushan's death under his son An Qingxu and his deputy and successor Shi Siming, or as
the Tianbao Rebellion , as it began in the 14th year of that era.
The rebellion spanned the reigns of three Tang emperors before it was quashed, and involved
a wide range of regional powers; besides the Tang dynasty loyalists, others involved were
anti-Tang families, especially in An Lushan's base area in Hebei, Arab, Gokturk, and Sogdian
forces or influences, among others. The rebellion and subsequent disorder resulted in a huge
loss of life and large-scale destruction. It significantly weakened the Tang dynasty, and led to
the loss of the Western Regions.
Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism was an attempt to create a more rationalist and secular form
of Confucianism by rejecting superstitious and mystical elements
of Daoism and Buddhism that had influenced Confucianism during and after the Han Dynasty..
Although the Neo-Confucianists were critical of Daoism and Buddhism, the two did have an
influence on the philosophy, and the Neo-Confucianists borrowed terms and concepts from
both. However, unlike the Buddhists and Daoists, who saw metaphysics as a catalyst for
spiritual development, religious enlightenment, and immortality, the Neo-Confucianists used
metaphysics as a guide for developing a rationalist ethical philosophy.
Xi
Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi was a Song Dynasty Confucian scholar who became the leading figure of
the School of Principle and the most influential rationalist Neo-Confucian in China. His
contribution toChinese philosophy include his assigning special significance to the Analects of
Confucius, the Mencius, the Great Learning,and the Doctrine of the Mean (the Four Books),
his emphasis on the investigation of things (gewu), and the synthesis of all fundamental
Confucian concepts formed the basis of Chinese bureaucracy and government for over 700
years.
Fei
Yue Fei (March 24, 1103 – January 27, 1142), style name Pengju, was a military general
during the era of the Southern Song Dynasty. His ancestral home was in Xiaoti, Yonghe
Village, Tangyin, Xiangzhou, Henan (in present-day Tangyin County, Anyang,Henan). He is
best known for leading the defense of Southern Song against invaders from
the Jurchen-ruled Jin Dynasty in northern China, before being put to death by the Southern
Song government.[2] He was granted the posthumous name of Wumu by Emperor
Xiaozong in 1169, and later granted the posthumous title of Prince of È byEmperor
Ningzong in 1211. Widely seen as a patriot and national hero in China, since after his death,
Yue Fei has evolved into a standard epitome of loyalty in Chinese culture.
Khitan(Liao)
The Khitan people were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally from Mongolia and Manchuria
(the northeastern region of modern-day China) from the 4th century. The Liao Dynasty, also
known as the Khitan Empire, was an empire in East Asia that ruled over Mongolia and portions
of the Russian Far East, northern Korea, and northern China proper from 907 to 1125.
Jurchen(Jin)
The Jurchen, also known as privet, female straight, ancient ethnic Chinese ancient life in the
northeast, the Manchus, Hezhen, Oroqen, predecessor. The early twelfth Century Wanyan
Aguda established the Jin Dynasty, ruling in northern China more than 100 years. Until
thirteenth Century, was destroyed by the mongols. In early seventeenth Century the Jianzhou
Jurchens gradually strong, its leader Nur Ha Che unified Nuzhen tribes, founded in 1616, after
the regime, to 1636, Huang Taiji changed the Jurchen Jurchen words in Manchuria, stop using,
then the people of Manchuria also contained a Mongolia nationality, Han Chinese, Korean and
other nationalities, gradually formed today's manchu.
s(Chingis)Khan
Ghengis Khan(1162 - 1227), the Empire of Mongolia Khan, was "Gen Gi Khan". The history of
the world's outstanding statesman, military strategist. The spring of 1206 the founding emperor,
after repeatedly launched a foreign wars of conquest, conquered the region in Central Asia,
Eastern Europe west of the Black Sea coastal. 1265 (yuan two years) in October, Kublai Khan
after the statue of Gen Gi Khan as emperor temple.
ai
Khubilai ( 1215 - 1294), Mongolia, founder of the yuan his youth, he "think big in the
world". Khubilai founded the vast unified multinational country in Yuan dynasty. During his
reign, a province system, strengthen the centralization of power, the social economy gradually
recovery and development. He has held a number of troops invaded neighboring, but failed.
Like his grandfather Gen Gi Khan, Kublai was the founder of Mongolia ethnic history, is the
Mongolia outstanding statesman, military strategist. In the 35 year of his reign, 1294 in lunar
January, mostly died, the posthumous title, and the emperor Shizu, ancestral temple.
Yuanzhang(Tianzu, the Hongwu Emperor)
The Hongwu Emperor （21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), also known by his given name
Zhu Yuanzhang and his temple name Ming Taizu ( "Great Ancestor of the Ming"), was the
founder and first emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China. His era name Hongwu means "vastly
martial".
In the middle of the 14th century, with famine, plagues, and peasant revolts sweeping across
China, Zhu rose to command over the army that conquered China and ended the Yuan
Dynasty, forcing the Mongols to retreat to the central Asian steppe. Following his seizure of the
Yuan capital Khanbaliq (modern Beijing), Zhu claimed the Mandate of Heaven and established
the Ming Dynasty in 1368. Trusting only in his family, he created his many sons as powerful
feudal princes along the northern marches and the Yangtze valley.
Zhen He Voyages
In the early Ming Dynasty Zheng He was ordered to 7 nautical activity. Zheng He's voyages to
the length of time, scale, scope is unprecedented. It not only in maritime activities reached the
world maritime industry peak, but also for the development of Chinese and Asian various
countries political, economic and cultural relations, has made the tremendous contribution.
July 11, 1405 (Ming Yongle three years) Cheng Zu's eunuch, Zheng He led a huge fleet of
ships, more than 240 crew of twenty-seven thousand four hundred voyage, visited more than
30 in the Western Pacific Ocean and India ocean to the countries and regions, deepening of
the Ming Dynasty and the South China Sea (now the southeast), friendly relations in East
Africa, known as Zheng He's voyages. Always start from the Suzhou visit the home port, until
1433 (Ming Xuande 8 years), a total of seven times as much as a long voyage. Last, Xuande
eight years April return to ancient, in the boat passed away.
Yangming
Wang Yangming (王陽明, 1472–1529), courtesy name Bo'an (伯安), was a Chinese idealist
Neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general during the Ming
Chinese. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker,
with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox
philosophy of Zhu Xi. Wang was known as "Yangming Xiansheng" and/or "Yangming Zi" in
literary circles: both mean "Brilliant Master Yangming".
划线部分为重点
Ricci
Matteo Ricci (1552-1610)was an Italian Jesuit priest, and one of the founding figures of the
Jesuit China Mission, as it existed in the 17th–18th centuries. His current title is Servant of
God.
In oriental view, Matteo Ricci is a scientist who helped with the information exchange between
western and eastern world. Many Westerns regards him of ―a missionary trying to make
heretic obey‖. He brought much western knowledge to east Asia, including astronomy,
geometry, geography, and humanism among with Catholicism. He cooperated with Chinese
people such ad Xu Guangqi. He put a garment of Confucianism over Catholicism trying to
make Chinese understood. (However, this method contributed to the ban on Catholicism by
Kangxi later.) He also introduced Chinese culture to the west.
Guangqi（Paul Hsu）
Xu Guangqi(1562–1633), who later adopted the name Paul Siu, was a Chinese
scholar-bureaucrat, agricultural scientist, astronomer, and mathematician in the Ming Dynasty.
Xu was a colleague and collaborator of the Italian Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Sabatino de Ursis
and they translated several classic Western texts into Chinese, including part of Euclid's
Elements. He was also the author of the Nong Zheng Quan Shu, one of the first
comprehensive treatises on the subject of agriculture. He was one of the "Three Pillars of
Chinese Catholicism". His current title is Servant of God.
Zicheng
Li Zicheng(1606-1645) , born Li Hongji , was a Chinese rebel leader who overthrew the Ming
Dynasty and ruled over China briefly as emperor of the short-lived Shun Dynasty. He started
his rebellion in 1629, and was then called ―Chuang Wang‖. In 1644 he set up the Shun
government in Chang an, and occupied Beijing -- ended the Ming dynasty. In the same year,
he was beat by the combined army of Manchu and Wu Sangui, the former Ming
commender-in-chief. Then he struggled against Qing for some years and finally disappeared.
He ended the Ming dynasty and tried to build a government whose land are allocated to people
and without land taxes in a period of time, only to be defeated by the non-Chinese Qing.
Margin（shuihu Zhuan）
Water Margin is a 14th century novel and one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese
literature. Attributed to Shi Nai'an and written in vernacular Chinese, the story, set in the Song
Dynasty, tells of how a group of 108 outlaws gathers at Liangshan Marsh to form a sizable
army, before they are eventually granted amnesty by the government and sent on campaigns
to resist foreign invaders and suppress rebel forces. It has introduced to readers many of the
most beloved literary characters in Chinese literature, such as Wu Song, Lin Chong and Lu
Zhishen.
y to the West（xiyou ji）
（概述）Journey to the West is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature.（这句话是四本书百搭的） It was written in the 16th century during the Ming Dynasty and
attributed to Wu Cheng'en. The book is based on legendary pilgrimage to India of the Buddhist
monk Xuanzang and Tang Records on the Western Regions and traditional folk tales.
（情节）The story is that Xuanzang, a Buddhist monk from Tang, took trouble and danger
traveling to the "Western Regions" to obtain sacred sūtras. He wad helped with Sun Wukong,
Zhu Bajie , Sha Wujing, and a white horse(indeed a dragon prince), whose name were given
by The bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin), on instruction from the Buddha.
（意义）Journey to the west systematically showed the thought combination of Buddhism,
Taoism and Confucianism, for it put the ―sky‖ ―hell‖ of Taoism, the ―Western Paradise‖ of
Buddhism and the ―loyalty and filial piety of immortals‖ of Confucianism together.【It put forward
the thought of taking turns to be the emperor, and its immortal system reflected the politics and
society of Ming.】（【】部分请自行取舍）
Plum in the Golden Vase(Jin Ping Mei)
（概述）Jin Ping Mei, or The Plum in the Golden Vase, is a Chinese naturalistic novel
composed in vernacular Chinese during the late Ming Dynasty. The author was Lanling
Xiaoxiao Sheng , "The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling", a clear pseudonym, and his identity is
otherwise unknown.
（内容）The book described the whole life of Xi Menqing and his family’s history from
becoming rich and powerful to lose. On the one hand, it showed the bad phaenomena in the
politics of Ming. Xi Menqing got money from illegal trade, then gave some money to officials
and powerful people, which helped his trade. At last he became a local overlord of money and
power. It also showed the situation of Grass-root society of that time. On the other hand, its
description of Xi Menqing’s family life, including the women Pan Jinlian, Li Pinger and Pang
Chunmei showed the crime of the family and the alienation of humanity.
（评价）Jin Ping Mei is sometimes considered to be the fifth classical novel after the Four
Great Classical Novels. However, its graphically explicit depiction of sexuality has garnered
the novel a level of bad reputation in China , but some critics see a firm moral structure which
exacts retribution for the sexual libertinism of the central characters.
e of the Three Kingdoms(sanguo yanyi)
（概述）Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century,[1] is
a historical novel set amidst the turbulent years near the end of the Han Dynasty and the
Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history, starting in 169 CE and ending with the reunification of
the land in 280 CE.
（故事）The story (part historical, part legend, and part myth) romanticises and dramatises the
lives of feudal lords and their retainers, who tried to replace the dwindling Han Dynasty or
restore it. While the novel actually follows literally hundreds of characters, the focus is mainly
on the three power blocs that emerged from the remnants of the Han Dynasty, and would
eventually form the three states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The novel deals with
the plots, personal and army battles, intrigues, and struggles of these states to achieve
dominance for almost 100 years.
（意义）This novel gives readers a sense of how the Chinese view their history in a cyclical
lens. The famous opening lines of the novel (as added by Mao Lun and his son Mao Zonggang)
summarise this view: It is a general truism of this world that anything long divided will surely
unite, and anything long united will surely divide .Romance of the Three Kingdoms is
acclaimed as one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature; it has a total of
800,000 words and nearly a thousand dramatic characters (mostly historical) in 120
chapters.[3] The novel is among the most beloved works of literature in East Asia,[4] and its
literary influence in the region has been compared to that of the works of Shakespeare on
English literature.[5] It is arguably the most widely read historical novel in late imperial and
modern China.[6]
Sangui
Wu Sangui (Chinese: 吳三桂; pinyin: Wú Sānguì; Wade–Giles: Wu San-kuei; style name
Changbai (長白) or Changbo (長伯); 1612 – October 2, 1678) was a Chinese military general
who was instrumental in the fall of the Ming Dynasty and the establishment of the Qing
Dynasty in 1644. Considered by traditional scholars as a traitor to both Ming, and ultimately,
Qing, Wu in 1678 declared himself Emperor of China and ruler of the Great Zhou Dynasty, but
his revolt was eventually quelled by the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty.
Chenggong
This is a Chinese name; the family name is Zheng.
Koxinga (literally "Lord of the Imperial Surname"; August 1624 - 23 June 1662) is the
customary Western spelling[8] of the popular appellation of Zheng Chenggong, a Chinese
military leader who was born in 1624 in Hirado, Japan to the Chinese merchant/pirate Zheng
Zhilong and his Japanese wife, and died in 1662 on the Island of Formosa (Taiwan).
A Ming loyalist and the chief commander of the Ming troops on the maritime front for the later
emperors of the withering dynasty, Koxinga devoted the last 16 years of his life to resisting the
conquest of China by the Manchus. Upon defeating the forces of the Dutch East India
Company (VOC) on Formosa in his last campaign in 1661–1662, Koxinga took over the island
in order to support his grand campaign against the Manchu-ruled Qing dynasty. After
Koxinga's death, his son and successor, Zheng Jing, gradually became the ruler of an
independent Kingdom of Tungning, the first Chinese state to rule the island.
i and the Banner System
alternatively Nurhachi; 21 February 1559 – 30 September 1626) was an important Jurchen
chieftain who rose to prominence in the late sixteenth century in Manchuria. Nurhaci was part
of the Aisin Gioro clan, and reigned from 1616 to his death in September 1626.
Nurhaci reorganized and united various Jurchen tribes (the later "Manchu"), consolidated the
Eight Banners military system, and eventually launched an assault on the Ming Dynasty and
Korea's Joseon Dynasty. His conquest of China's northeastern Liaoning province laid the
groundwork for the conquest of the rest of China by his descendants, who would go on to
found the Qing Dynasty in 1644. He is also generally credited with the creation of a written
script for the Manchu language.
r Kangxi
The Kangxi Emperor (Kang-hsi Emperor; Chinese: 康熙帝; pinyin: Kāngxī Dì; Wade–Giles:
K'ang1-hsi1 Ti4; temple name: Shengzu (Sheng-tsu; Chinese: 聖祖; which means "The Holy
Lord"); Manchu:elhe taifin hūwangdi; Mongolian: Enkh Amgalan Khaan; 4 May 1654 – 20
December 1722) was the fourth emperor of the Qing Dynasty,[1][2] the first to be born on
Chinese soil south of the Pass (Beijing) and the second Qing emperor to rule over China
proper, from 1661 to 1722.
Kangxi's reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning Chinese emperor in history
(although his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor, had the longest period of de facto power) and
one of the longest-reigning rulers in the world. [3] However, having ascended the throne at the
age of seven, he was not the effective ruler until later, with that role temporarily fulfilled for six
years by four regents and his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang.
Kangxi is considered one of China's greatest emperors.[4] He suppressed the Revolt of the
Three Feudatories, forced the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan to submit to Qing rule, blocked
Tsarist Russia on the Amur River and expanded the empire in the northwest. He also
accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary.
Kangxi's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and
chaos. He initiated the period known as the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong", which
lasted for generations after his own lifetime. By the end of his reign, the Qing Empire controlled
all of China proper, Taiwan, Manchuria, part of the Russian Far East (Outer Manchuria), both
Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet proper, and Joseon Korea as a protectorate.
r Yongzheng
The Yongzheng Emperor (Yung-cheng Emperor; Chinese: 雍正帝; pinyin: Yōngzhèng Dì;
Wade–Giles: Yung1-cheng4 Ti4, Manchu:, Hūwaliyasun Tob hūwangdi, Mongolian: Nairalt Töv
Khaan; 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), born Yinzhen (Yin-chen; Chinese: 胤禛; pinyin:
Yìnzhēn; Wade–Giles: Yin4-chen1 ; Manchu language: ᡳᡳ ᡳᡳᡳ ; Möllendorff transliteration:
in jen) was the fifth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty and the third Qing emperor from
1722 to 1735. A hard-working ruler, Yongzheng's main goal was to create an effective
government at minimal expense. Like his father, the Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng used military
force to preserve the dynasty's position. Suspected by historians to have usurped the throne,
his reign was known as despotic, efficient, and vigorous.
Although Yongzheng's reign was much shorter than the reigns of both his father (the Kangxi
Emperor) and his son (the Qianlong Emperor), his sudden death was probably brought about
by a heavy workload. Yongzheng continued an era of peace and prosperity; he cracked down
on corruption and waste, and reformed the financial administration.[1] During his reign the
formulation of the Grand Council began, an institution which had an enormous impact on the
future of imperial China.
r Qianlong
The Qianlong Emperor (Chien-lung Emperor); born Hongli (Hung-li; Chinese: 弘曆;
Möllendorff transliteration hung li); 25 September 1711 – 7 February 1799) was the sixth
emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China
proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735
to 8 February 1796.1 On 8 February, he abdicated in favor of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor – a
filial act in order not to reign longer than his grandfather, the illustrious Kangxi Emperor.[1]
Despite his retirement, however, he retained ultimate power until his death in 1799. Although
his early years saw the continuation of an era of prosperity in China, his final years saw
troubles at home and abroad converge on the Qing Empire.
Xueqin and The Dream of the red Chamber
The Story of the Stone" redirects here. For the 1988 novel, see The Story of the Stone (Barry
Hughart).For other uses, see Dream of the Red Chamber (disambiguation).
Dream of the Red Chamber紅樓夢
A scene from the story, painted by Xu Baozhuan (1810–1873)Author(s)Cao
XueqinCountryChinaLanguageChineseGenre(s)NovelPublication date18th centuryPublished
in English1868, 1892; 1973–1980 (1st complete English translation)Media typeScribal
copies/Print
This article containsChinese text. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion
marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.
Dream of the Red Chamber (simplified Chinese: 红楼梦; traditional Chinese: 紅樓夢; pinyin:
Hóng Lóu Mèng; Wade–Giles: Hung Lou Meng), composed by Cao Xueqin, is one of China's
Four Great Classical Novels. It was written in the middle of the 18th century during the Qing
Dynasty. It is considered a masterpiece of Chinese literature and is generally acknowledged to
be the pinnacle of Chinese fiction. "Redology" is the field of study devoted exclusively to this
work.[1]The title has also been translated as Red Chamber Dream and A Dream of Red
Mansions. The novel circulated in manuscript copies with various titles until its print publication,
in 1791. The novel is also often known as The Story of the Stone (simplified Chinese: 石头记;traditional Chinese: 石頭記; pinyin: Shítóu jì). While the first 80 chapters were written by
Cao Xueqin, Gao E, who prepared the first and second printed editions with his partner Cheng
Weiyuan in 1791-2, added 40 additional chapters to complete the novel.[2]Red Chamber is
believed to be semi-autobiographical, mirroring the rise and decay of author Cao Xueqin's own
family and, by extension, of the Qing Dynasty.[3] As the author details in the first chapter, it is
intended to be a memorial to the women he knew in his youth: friends, relatives and servants.
The novel is remarkable not only for its huge cast of characters and psychological scope, but
also for its precise and detailed observation of the life and social structures typical of
18th-century Chinese aristocracy.[4]
Cao Xueqin (Chinese: 曹雪芹; pinyin: Cáo Xuěqín; Wade–Giles: Ts'ao Hsueh-ch'in, (1715[1]
or 1724[2] — 1763[1] or 1764[3]) was a Qing Dynasty Chinese writer, best known as the
author of Dream of the Red Chamber, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese
literature. His given name was Cao Zhan (曹霑) and his courtesy name is Mengruan (夢阮; 梦阮; literally "Dream about Ruan" or "Dream of Ruan").
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