American Values and Assumptions

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2024年3月16日发(作者：)

Unit 2 Value

American Values and Assumptions

Gary Althen

People who grow up in a particular culture share certain values and

assumptions. That doesn’t mean they all share exactly the same values to exactly

the same extent; it does mean that most of them, most of the time, mostly agree

with each other’s ideas about what is right and wrong, desirable and undesirable,

and so on. They also agree, mostly, with each other’s assumptions about human

nature, social relationships, and so on.

Individualism

One of the most important things to understand about Americans is how

devoted they are to “individualism”. They have been trained since very early in

their lives to consider themselves as separate individuals who are responsible for

their own situations in life and their own destinies. They have not been trained to

see themselves as members of a close-knit, tightly interdependent family, religious

group, tribe or nation.

You can see this in the way Americans treat their children. Even very young

children are given opportunities to make their own choices and express their

opinions. A parent will ask a one-year-old child what color balloon she wants,

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which dessert she prefers, or where she wants to sit. The child’s preference will

normally be accommodated. Through this process, Americans come to see

themselves as separate human beings who have their own opinions and who are

responsible for their own decisions.

Indeed, American child-rearing manuals state that the parents’ objective is

for the child to move out of the parents’ house and make his or her own way in

life. Americans take this advice very seriously, so much so that someone who

remains dependent on their parents longer than the norm may be thought to be

“immature”, “tied to the mother’s apron strings,” or otherwise unable to lead

a normal independent life.

Americans are trained to conceive of themselves as separate individuals, and

they assume everyone else in the world is too. When they encounter a person from

abroad who seems to them excessively concerned with the opinions of parents,

with following traditions, or with fulfilling obligations to others, they assume that

the person feels trapped, or is weak and “too dependent.”

Americans, then, consider the ideal person to be an individualistic, self-reliant,

independent person. They assume, incorrectly, that people from elsewhere share

this value and this self-concept. In the degree to which they glorify “the

individual” who stands alone and makes his or her own decisions, Americans are

quite distinctive.

The American version of the “ideal individual” prefers an atmosphere of

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freedom, where neither the government nor any other external force or agency

dictates what the individual does. For Americans, the idea of individual freedom is

strongly positive. By contrast, people from many other cultures regard some of the

behavior Americans justify as “individual freedom” to be self-centered and

lacking in consideration for others.

Foreigners who understand the degree to which Americans are imbued with

the notion that the free, self-reliant individual is the ideal kind of human being will

be able to understand many aspects of American behavior and thinking that

otherwise might not make sense. A very few of the many possible examples:

Americans see as heroes those individuals who “stand out from the crowd”

by doing something first, longest, most often, or otherwise “best.” Examples are

aviators Charles Lindbergh and Amelia Earhart.

Americans admire people who have overcome adverse circumstances (for

example, poverty or a physical handicap) and “succeeded” in life. Black educator

Booker T. Washington is one example; the blind and deaf author and lecturer

Helen Keller is another.

Many Americans do not display the degree of respect for their parents that

people in more traditional or family-oriented societies commonly display. They

have the conception that it was a sort of historical or biological accident that put

them in the hands of particular parents, that the parents fulfilled their

responsibilities to the children while the children were young, and now that the

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children have reached “the age of independence” the close child-parent tie is

loosened, if not broken.

It isn’t unusual for Americans who are beyond the age of about 22 and who

are still living with their parents to pay their parents for room and board. Elderly

parents living with their grown children may do likewise. Paying for room and

board is a way of showing independence, self-reliance, and responsibility for

oneself.

Certain phrases one commonly hears among Americans which capture their

devotion to individualism include: “Do your own thing.” “I did it my way.”

“You’ll have to decide that for yourself.” “You made your bed, now lie in it.”

“God helps those who help themselves.” “Look out for number one.”

Privacy

Closely associated with the value they place on individualism is the

importance Americans assign to privacy. Americans assume that people “need

some time to themselves” or “some time alone” to think about things or

recover their spent psychological energy. Americans have great difficulty

understanding someone who always wants to be with another person, who

dislikes being alone. Americans tend to regard such people as weak or dependent.

If the parents can afford it, each child will have his or her own bedroom.

Having one’s own bedroom, even as an infant, imbues people with the notion

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that they’re entitled to a place of their own where they can be by themselves and

— notice — keep their possessions. They have their own clothes, toys, books and

so on. These things are theirs and no one else’s.

Americans assume that people have their “private thoughts” that might

never be shared with anyone. Doctors, lawyers, psychiatrists, and others have rules

governing “confidentiality” that are intended to prevent information about their

clients’ personal situations from becoming known to others.

Americans’ attitudes about privacy can be difficult for foreigners to

understand. Americans’ houses, yards, and even their offices can seem open and

inviting, yet, in the Americans’ minds, there are boundaries that other people are

simply not supposed to cross. When the boundaries are crossed, Americans will

visibly stiffen and their manner will become cool.

Informality

Their notions of equality lead Americans to be quite informal in their general

behavior and in their relationships with other people. Store clerks and table servers,

for example, may introduce themselves by their first (given) names and treat

customers in a casual, friendly manner. American clerks, like other Americans, have

been trained to believe that they are as valuable as any other people, even if they

happen to be engaged at a given time in an occupation that others might consider

lowly. This informal behavior can outrage foreign visitors who hold high status in

countries where it is not assumed that “all men are created equal.”

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Relationships between students, teachers, and coworkers in American society

are often very informal. People from societies where general behavior is more

formal than it is in the United States are struck by the informality of American

speech, dress, and body language. Idiomatic speech and slang are liberally used

on most occasions, with formal speech reserved for public events and fairly formal

situations. People of almost any station in life can be seen in public wearing jeans,

sandals, or other informal attire. People slouch down in chairs or lean on walls or

furniture when they talk rather than maintaining an erect bearing.

A brochure advertising a highly regarded liberal arts college contains a

photograph showing the college president, dressed in shorts and an old T-shirt,

jogging past one of the classroom buildings on his campus. Americans are likely to

find the photograph appealing: “Here is a college president who’s just like

anyone else. He doesn’t think he’s too good for us.”

Likewise, U.S. President George W. Bush frequently allowed himself to be

photographed in his jogging attire while out for one of his frequent runs.

The superficial friendliness for which Americans are so well-known is related

to their informal, egalitarian approach to other people. “Hi!” they will say to just

about anyone, or “Howyadoin?” (that is, “How are you doing?” or “How are

you?”). This behavior reflects not so much a special interest in the person

addressed as a concern (not conscious) for showing that one is a “regular guy,”

part of a group of normal, pleasant people—like the jogging college president and

the jogging president of his superpower country.

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Directness and Assertiveness

Americans, as we’ve said before, generally consider themselves to be frank,

open, and direct in their dealings with other people. “Let’s lay our cards on the

table,” they say. Or, “Let’s stop playing games and get to the point.” These and

many other common expressions convey the Americans’ idea that people should

explicitly state what they think and what they want from other people.

Americans usually assume that conflicts or disagreements are best settled by

means of forthright discussions among the people involved. If I dislike something

you are doing, I should tell you about it directly so you will know, clearly and from

me personally, how I feel about it. Bringing in other people to mediate a dispute is

commonly considered somewhat cowardly, the act of a person without enough

courage to speak directly to someone else. Mediation is, however, slowly gaining

in popularity in recent years.

The word assertive is the adjective Americans commonly use to describe the

person who plainly and directly expresses feelings and requests. People who are

inadequately assertive can take “assertiveness-training classes.” What

Americans consider assertive is, however, often judged as aggressive by some

non-Americans and sometimes by Americans—if the person referred to is a

woman.

Americans will often speak openly and directly to others about things they

dislike, particularly in a work situation. They will try to do so in a manner they call

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“constructive,” that is, a manner the other person will not find offensive or

unacceptable. If they do not speak openly about what is on their minds, they will

often convey their reactions in nonverbal ways (without words but through facial

expressions, body positions, and gestures). Americans are not taught, as people in

many Asian countries are, that they should mask their emotional responses. Their

words, the tone of their voices, or their facial expressions will usually reveal their

feelings: anger, unhappiness and confusion or happiness and contentment. They

do not think it improper to display these feelings, at least within limits. Many

Asians feel embarrassed around Americans who are exhibiting a strong emotional

response to something. On the other hand, Latin Americans and Arabs are

generally inclined to display their emotions more openly than Americans do and

to view Americans as unemotional and “cold.”

Americans, however, are often less direct and open than they realize. There are

in fact many restrictions on their willingness to discuss things openly. It is difficult

to categorize those restrictions, which are often not “logical” in the sense of

being consistent with each other. Generally, though, Americans are reluctant to

speak openly when the topic is in an area they consider excessively personal, such

as unpleasant body or mouth odors, sexual functioning, or personal inadequacies;

they want to say no to a request that has been made of them but do not want to

offend or hurt the feelings of the person who made the request; they are not well

enough acquainted with the other person to be confident that direct discussion

will be accepted in the constructive way that is intended; and, paradoxically, they

know the other person very well (it might be a spouse or close friend) and they do

not wish to risk giving offense and creating negative feelings by talking about

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some delicate problem. A Chinese visitor invited an American couple to his

apartment to share a dinner he had prepared. They complimented him warmly

about the quality of his meal. “Several Americans have told me they like my

cooking, “ he replied, “but I cannot tell whether they are sincere or are just being

polite. Do you think they really like it?”

All of this is to say that Americans, even though they see themselves as

properly assertive and even though they often behave in open and direct ways,

have limits on their openness. It is not unusual for them to try to avoid direct

confrontations with other people when they are not confident that the interaction

can be carried out in a constructive way that will result in an acceptable

compromise.

Foreigners often find themselves in situations where they are unsure or even

unaware of what the Americans around them are thinking or feeling and are

unable to find out because the Americans will not tell them directly what they have

on their minds. Two examples follow:

Sometimes a person from another country will “smell bad” to Americans

because he or she does not follow the hygienic practices, including daily bathing

and the use of deodorants, that most Americans think are necessary. But

Americans will rarely tell another person (American or otherwise) that he or she

has “body odor” because that topic is considered too sensitive.

A foreigner (or another American, for that matter) may ask a “favor” of an

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American that he or she considers inappropriate, such as wanting to borrow some

money or a car or asking for help with an undertaking that will require more time

than the American thinks she or he has available. The American will want to decline

the request but will be reluctant to say no directly.

Americans might feel especially reluctant to refuse a foreigner directly for fear

of making the person feel unwelcome or discriminated against. They will often try

to convey their unwillingness indirectly by saying such things as “It’s not

convenient now” or by repeatedly postponing an agreed-upon time for carrying

something out.

Despite these limitations, Americans are generally more direct and open than

people from almost all other countries with the exception of Israel and Australia.

They will not try to mask their emotions, as Scandinavians or Japanese tend to do.

They are much less concerned with “face” (that is, avoiding embarrassment to

themselves or others) than most Asians are. To them, being honest is usually more

important than preserving harmony in interpersonal relationships.

Americans use the words pushy or aggressive to describe a person who is

excessively assertive in expressing opinions or making requests. The line between

acceptable assertiveness and unacceptable aggressiveness is difficult to draw.

Iranians and people from other countries where forceful arguing and negotiating

are common forms of interaction risk being seen as aggressive or pushy when they

treat Americans in the way they treat people at home. (2415 words)

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Vocabulary:

close-knit:

a. tightly bound together紧密结合在一起的；组织严密的

accommodate:[ə'kɑmədet]

vt. take into consideration对…予以照顾性

rear: [rɪr]

vt. care for (a child or animal) until fully grown抚养饲养

manual:

n. a book which teaches about how to do sth. or how sth works手册，指南

norm: [nɔrm]

n. (oft. pl.) a standard of proper behavior in a particular society or place准则；

规范

apron: ['eprən]

n. 围裙；工作裙

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aviator: ['evɪ'etɚ]

n. the pilot of an aircraft

adverse:[ædˈvɚs, ˈædˌvɚs]

a. difficult, not beneficial (to sth)不利的，有害的

orient: ['orɪənt]

vt. set or determine (sth.’s/sb.’s) position relative to other things给…定位；

给…定方向

number one:

(infml) oneself 自己的；look out for number one: 谋求自身的利益

stiffen: ['stɪfn]

v. (cause to)become uncomfortable, less friendly, etc., as when afraid or

offended（使）变硬；（使）不易弯曲

sandal:['sændl]

n. 拖鞋，便鞋

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attire：[ə'taɪə]

服装；盛装

brochure: ['brəʊʃə; brɒ'ʃʊə] 美 [bro'ʃʊr]

n. a small book usually having a paper cover手册，小册子

superficial: 英 [,suːpə'fɪʃ(ə)l; ,sjuː-] 美 [,supɚ'fɪʃl]

表面的;肤浅的; 浅薄的

assertiveness:[ə'sə:tivnis]

n. aggressive self-assurance; given to making bold assertions过分自信; 果断;

肯定

explicitly: [ɪk'splɪsɪtli]

in an explicit manner明白地;明确指出地

Scandinavians: [,skændi'neiviən; -vjən]

n. 斯堪的纳维亚人

pushy:['pʊʃi]

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adj. marked by aggressive ambition and energy and initiative有进取心的; 固执

己见的

Exercises:

1. Comprehension questions:

1) In what ways do the Americans train their children?

2) What do the people from other cultures think of American culture?

3) Why are Americans devoted to “individualism”?

4) What do Americans think of people who are dependent on one’s parents

longer than the norm?

5) Why do the grown children living with parents often pay for their room and

board?

6) Why do the Americans value privacy?

7) Why do the Americans take an informal way toward people?

8) What do the people from other cultures think of Americans’ informality?

9) What do the Americans think about expressing one’s opinion?

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10) How do the Americans usually settle their conflicts?

2. Discussion:

1) Compare the different views about individualism of the Americans and

Chinese people.

2) Describe the ways the Americans show their informality.

Reading 2:

The ABCs of the USA

1

America can be a strange experience for a foreigner. My wife and I arrived in

the United States in January after seven years overseas -- four in France, three in

Poland. From the jumble of first impressions, we compiled an A-to-Z explanation

of why America can be such a foreign country to those who arrive here from

Europe.

2

I should explain at the outset that I am from Britain, but my Florida-born

wife Lisa is as American as apple pie. In our list, however, A doesn’t stand for

apple pie. It stands for:

3 Ambition.

In the Old World, people are taught to hide it. Here it’s quite

proper to announce that you‘re after the boss’s job or want to make a million

dollars by the age of 30.

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4 Breakfast

. The American habit of conducting business at breakfast has

reached Europe, but I doubt it will ever really catch on. In France and Britain,

breakfast is a family affair. Here, it’s become part of the power game.

5 Credit Cards

. You really can’t leave home without them. It’s interesting,

and somewhat frustrating, to discover that bad credit is better than no credit at all:

I was refused a VISA card on the grounds that I didn’t have a credit profile (信用

记录).

6 Dreams

. The American Dream is still very much alive. Dreaming great

dreams is what keeps American society going -- from the waitress who wants to

become a car dealer to the street kid who wants to become a basketball star.

Europeans dream dreams too, but don’t seem to believe in them so much.

7 Exercise

. A couple of years ago I came to Washington with some French

journalists. As our bus passed a health club on the way to the hotel, the French

visitors cheered at the sight of body-conscious Americans bending, stretching and

leaping around. America’s obsession with physical fitness really amuses -- and

puzzles -- Europeans.

8 First names

. In Europe, people progress in a natural and orderly way from

the use of last names to the use of first names. Here, it’s first names at first sight.

This can cause confusion for Europeans. With everyone on a first-name basis, how

can you tell your acquaintances from your friends?

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9 Gadgets

(小玩意). These can be addictive. It’s difficult to imagine now how

we survived for so long without automatic ice machines and microwave ovens.

10 Hardware Stores

. If I were in charge of arranging the programs of visiting

delegations from less-developed countries, I’d include a compulsory visit to a

hardware store. These temples of American capitalism reveal a whole range of

American values, from the do-it-yourself pioneer spirit through a love of comfort

that absolutely astonishes most foreigners.

11 Insurance

. Americans have policies to cover every possible risk, no

matter how remote. So far, we’ve refused supplementary insurance for our car

radio, death insurance for our mortgage and accident insurance for our cat. It

gives us a feeling of living dangerously.

12 Junk food

. Anyone who wants to understand why Americans suffer from

higher rates of cancer and heart disease only has to look at what they eat.

13 Ketchup

(调味番茄酱). I had to come to America to discover that it can be

eaten with anything -- from French fries to French cheese.

14 Lines

. American lines -- beginning with the yellow line at immigration

control -- are the most orderly in the world. The British queue, once internationally

renowned, has begun to decay in recent years. The French queue was never very

impressive, and the Italian line is simply a mob.

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15 Money

. In Europe, everybody likes money, but no one shows it off.

Unless it’s been in the family for several generations, there’s often an

assumption that it was acquired dishonestly. In America, no one cares how you got

it.

16 No smoking

. No longer just a polite request in America, this phrase has

become the law. Nobody would dare ask a Frenchman to put out his Galoise in a

restaurant.

17 Oliver North

. What other major Western democracy lets army officers

take over foreign policy? A hero for some, a traitor for others, Ollie (see First

Names) is an example of an American recklessness that awes and alarms

Europeans.

18 Patriots

. They exist everywhere, of course, but the American version is

louder and more self-conscious than the European. In Britain, it’s taken for

granted that politicians love their country. Here, they’re expected to prove it.

19 Quiet

. American cities are quieter than European cities -- thanks to noise

controls on automobiles and to recent environmental legislation. This was a major

surprise for someone brought up to assume that America was a noisy place.

20 Religion

. The idea of putting preachers on TV is alarming to Europeans.

It’s even more alarming to see them in action.

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21 Sales

. Ever since arriving in Washington, we’ve been hurrying to take

advantage of this week’s unrepeatable offer, only to discover that it’s usually

repeated next week. We’re just catching on that there’s always an excuse for a

sale.

22 Television

. That grown-ups can watch game shows and sitcoms at 11 AM

amazes me -- but the national habit, day or night, is contagious. I recently found

myself nodding in agreement with a professor who was saying that American kids

watch too much television. Then I realized that I was watching him say this on

television.

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Ulcers

(溃疡). See Work.

Visas

. Americans don’t need visas to visit Britain (or most European

countries, for that matter). To enter the United States, I had to sign a document

promising that I would not overthrow the government by force and had no

criminal record. One wonders if many terrorists and criminals answer “yes” on

these questionnaires.

25 Work

. People in less developed countries often imagine that they can

become rich simply by emigrating to America. But America became a wealthy

society through work, work and more work. It’s still true.

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TVs.

X-rated movies

. We have them in Europe too, but not on motel-room

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27 Yuppies

. The European counterpart remains a pale shadow of the

all-American original. The animal seems more ambitious, and more common, on

this side of the Atlantic.

28 Zillion

. What other nation would invent a number that’s infinitely more

than a billion? America may not always be the best, but it certainly thinks big.(1064

words)

Vocabulary

jumble:['dʒʌmbl]

a confused multitude of things混杂；混乱

compile:[kəm'paɪl]

put together out of existing material编辑，编纂，编制；汇编

gadgets:[gæ,dʒɪts]

n. 小配件；小工具

ketchup:['kɛtʃəp]

thick spicy sauce made from tomatoes调味番茄酱

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ulcers: ['ʌlsɚ]

n. 溃疡

Exercises:

1. Comprehension questions:

1) What was the author’s aim in compiling this list?

2) Why does he feel he should explain in the beginning the homeland of his

and his wife’s?

3) How does the author define the American Dream?

4) Why did the French journalists “cheer at the sight of body-conscious

Americans”?

5) According to the author, how does the American use of first names confuse

Europeans?

6) How does the author explain the European attitude towards money?

7) Judging from the other descriptions of European attitudes in the text, why

does the idea of having religion on TV alarm Europeans?

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8) What does the author mean by “Ulcers: See Work”?

9) Why does he wonder about the questionnaires foreigners must fill out in

order to enter the United States?

10) What does the last sentence of the text mean?

2. Discussion:

1) As you read the selection, underline or highlight the passages that values.

Then, in the margin next to a marked passage, indicate how prominent the value is

in your culture by writing "very strong," "strong," "not very strong," or "weak."

2) compared with the value of the U.S. talk about the value of Chinese culture.

Reading 3:

A Foreign Anthropologist's Observation of Americans

Deena R. Levine & Mara B. Adelma

Sometimes it’s difficult to describe the values or ideals of a culture from

within that culture. However, if one looks at the culture from the outside, certain

observations can be made more easily. It’s important to understand American

values if you want to understand American behavior. Certain ways of thinking,

acting and communicating are a direct result of cultural values. The following list

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of values describes the basic values of many Americans (even a majority of

Americans). For each entry in the list of American values, a “contrasting value” is

given. Each of these opposite values may be found among some Americans

(particularly those belonging to certain minority groups), but for the most part is

more typical of people in non-Western cultures of the world.

1. American Value: Personal control over the environment: People can alter

nature, and, to a large extent, can determine the direction of their lives.

Contrasting Value: Fate: What happens in life is a result of a grand plan or

destiny.

2. American Value: Change: Change is healthy. People stagnate if they don’t

make enough changes.

Contrasting value: Tradition: The preservation of ceremonies, customs, and

beliefs from the past is important and worthy.

3. American Value: Control over time: Time flies. People are pressured by time.

People shouldn’t waste time. They must rush to get things done, and must follow

their schedules to be productive.

Contrasting value: Time walks. There’s no need for people to feel so

pressured. They should take it easy!

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4. American Value: Equality and egalitarianism: All people are created equal

and deserve equal rights. (Remember: This is a value or ideal, not an established

reality.)

Contrasting value: Rank and status: People’s roles are defined in terms of

their relationships to other people; people can be inferior or superior to someone

else.

5. American Value: Individualism and privacy: Individual needs are considered

primary.

Contrasting Value: Group orientation: The individual sacrifices his or her needs

to those of the group.

6. American Value: Self-help: People can and should try to improve their own

lives, their own minds, their own marriages and even their own personalities.

Contrasting Value: Birthright inheritance: People are born into either wealth or

poverty and should live according to tradition; we all “are who we are” and

shouldn’t pretend otherwise.

7. American Value: Action and work orientation: Work often defines people;

they identify themselves by what they do. (“What do you do?” nearly means:

“Who are you?”)

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Contrasting Value: “Being” orientation: Work is not the heart and soul of

person; it’s okay not to focus on work, accomplishments and achievements.

8. American Value: Informality: First name usage (“Just call me Bob”), casual

clothes, and a lack of formal ceremony are typical of American life.

Contrasting Value: Formality: The use of titles and last names is common;

displays of respect are important; keeping a little distance is considered good

manners.

9. American Value: Directness, openness, and honesty: “Honesty is the best

policy.” People should express themselves openly. It’s not considered good to

“beat around the bush.”

Contrasting Value: Being indirect and “saving face”: People should consider

one another’s feelings when deciding what to say. Honesty is not always the best

policy.

10. American Value: Materialism: It’s okay to be more concerned with

material goals than with spiritual or intellectual goals.

Contrasting value: Spirituality: All reality is spiritual; nothing material is as

important. (560 words)

Vocabulary:

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Stagnate: [stæɡ'net]

vi. vt. stand still; cease to flow; stand without moving停滞；淤塞；变萧条

egalitarianism: [ɪ,gælɪ'tɛrɪənɪzəm]

n. the doctrine of the equality of mankind and the desirability of political and

economic and social equality平等主义，[经] 平均主义

Birthright: ['bɝθraɪt]

n. a right or privilege that you are entitled to at birth与生俱来的权利

Spirituality: [,spɪrɪtʃu'æləti]

n. concern with things of the spirit灵性；精神性

Exercises:

1. Questions:

1) What is the Americans’ attitude toward change?

2) What do the Americans think of if you keep a little distance in relationships?

3) What do the Americans think of the efforts to save face?

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2. Mark each statement I (Implied) or NI (Not Implied), and underline the

sections of the text that support your answers:

1. The best judges of a culture are the people who have never lived within it.

2. The “contrasting values” in the list are the ones that most Americans

would like to achieve.

3. Americana don’t plan their lives.

4. Americans have a positive attitude toward change.

5. To Americans, the saying “all people are created equal” means that only

outstanding people deserve special privileges.

6. In America, people are expected to make efforts to improve their situations.

7. Americans often make assumptions about people based on the work that

they do.

8. Americans may find it rude if you keep a little distance in relationships.

9. To Americans, efforts to save face may appear dishonest.

10. Americans feel pressured to hide their spiritual goals.

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Reading 4:

Cheating as Culture: Insights for Foreign Teachers

1 When foreign teachers first come to a new country, they usually expect —

even look forward to — a different approach to education than what they’re used

to. So it’s interesting that they’re often completely unprepared for many of the

specific cultural differences they run into in their classrooms. When new American

teachers first come to Poland, for example, one of their most frequent (and

furious!) cries is:“My students are cheating all the time!” Hearing this, the Polish

students become confused and angry, and the result is usually a series of

ever-worsening misunderstandings that do a lot of damage to student/teacher

relations. But this mutual ill could be easily avoided if only everyone remembered

that cheating is a culturally relative matter.

2 The cultural values of Polish society are reflected in the education system,

just like anywhere else. Poland is a group-oriented society, which means that

cooperation is strongly emphasized. And although this attitude is very appealing

in theory to most Americans, adjusting to the way it’s practiced in everyday life

can be a major challenge for someone from a society that emphasizes individual

responsibility. It’s enormously difficult for them to grasp that what they call

cheating, Poles call survival.

3 In a group-oriented society, it’s unthinkable to refuse help to a friend in

need. It’s a survival thing: When a friend needs money, you lend it to him — next

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week he’ll drive you to the train station to pick up your visiting cousins. When a

neighbor needs help carrying some new furniture upstairs, you help her — in a

month she’ll let you use her phone when you’ve lost your keys and are locked

out of your flat in the cold. And when a classmate whispers a desperate question

during a test, you answer him — after all, he lent you the book you needed in

order to finish your essay last month. How can you refuse?

4 An American might respond by saying that of course you can refuse — easily!

— and that there are a hundred better (and obvious!) solutions to the problem of

the desperate classmate than helping him cheat. But 99 of those “better

solutions” are only better in the context of a society where the focus is on

individual responsibility; and they’re only “obvious” to someone who’s grown

up in an individualist culture and been imbued with its values. For Poles, what’s

obvious and better — is concern for the well-being of the whole group and the

cooperative bonds that are essential to everyone’s survival.

5 There’s another level to the cheating issue as well. The ability to use one’s

wits to escape from a difficult situation has always been highly valued in Polish

culture — doubtless due to historical reasons. Polish history is a history of hardship,

invasion and occupation, and Poles have had to rely on their inventiveness to

survive, not on wealth or military strength. Cheating at school — especially if it’s

done successfully or at least creatively is simply one variation on the time-honored

skill of worming your way out of a hard spot. And although Polish teachers don’t

all approve of it, they are much more likely than Americans to look the other way,

or even secretly admire it a bit.

29

6 Understanding the deep-rooted cultural reasons for cheating may not

always help you overcome your gut reactions to it — but it can be useful in finding

ways to cope with it. Trying to wipe out the cheating just turns the academic year

into a series of bitter battles — and Poles have a lot more experience as resistance

fighters than you do, believe me! Instead, I recommend trying some of the

techniques that creative Polish instructors use: Instead of declaring war on the

cheating, build it into your tests and assignments so that it contributes to the

students’ education. Before a test, make the preparation of “cheat sheets” a

homework assignment or even an in-class group activity — then collect them and

grade them before the test. Give group tests and group homework, making it clear

that you expect the learners to use each other as educational resources, and that

they will be graded collectively. Give open-book tests — after all, it’s the

information age, and knowing how to access information is a more useful skill than

memorizing it! Finally, never assume that it’s obvious to the students when you

expect completely individual work from them. In a group-oriented culture, this

isn’t obvious at all.

7 The issue of cheating is just one example of the kinds of conflicts that can

arise in classrooms where two cultures meet. Recognizing these conflicts as

cultural differences is the first step towards making them part of the educational

experience for everyone in your classroom. But there’s a second crucial

ingredient as well. It’s called tolerance. (795 words)

Vocabulary:

30

Pole: [pəul]

n. 波兰人

crucial: [ 'kru:ʃəl ]

adj. of extreme importance; vital to the resolution of a crisis重要的；决定性的

ingredient: [ɪn'griːdɪənt]

n. adj. a component of a mixture or compound原料；要素；组成部分

Exercises:

1. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.

1) Foreign teachers are often unprepared for a different approach to education

from what they’re used to.

2) The term “cheating is a culturally relative matter” (para.1) means that

different cultures view this issue in different ways.

3) Cooperation is highly valued in Polish society.

4) Individual responsibility is highly valued in American society.

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5) The author believes that American solutions to the problem of the

desperate classmate are better than helping him cheat.

6) Historical factors contribute to the cheating issue.

7) Polish teachers don’t always punish cheaters.

8) The author believes that understanding the cultural reasons for cheating

will help American teachers overcome their gut reactions to it.

9) The author considers the preparation of “cheat sheets” a good homework

assignment.

10) The author believes that American teachers should change their

students’ cultural values.

2. Discussion:

1. What do the Chinese students think of cheating?

Reading 5:

Living and working in Britain

David Hampshire

32

The typical Briton is introspective, patriotic, brave, small-minded, polite,

insecure, arrogant, a compulsive gambler, humorous, reserved, conservative,

hypocritical, a racist, boring, a royalist, depressed, a keen gardener, hard-working,

unambitious, ironic, passionless, hard-headed, liberal, a traditionalist, a couch

potato, homely, pragmatic, cynical, decent, unhealthy, a poor cook, pompous,

proud, tolerant, conceited, courageous, mean (a bad tipper), courteous, stuffy,

well-mannered, disciplined, a habitual queuer, modest, gloomy, shy, serious,

honest, fair, snobbish, friendly, civilised, prejudiced and class conscious.

If the above list contains a few contradictions, it’s because there’s no such

thing as a typical Briton and very few people conform to the standard British

stereotype (whatever that is).

Class Systems

One of the things which initially confuses foreigners living in the UK is its class

system, which is a curious British affectation. Entry to the upper class echelons is

rooted in birthright and ill-bred upstarts with pots of ‘new’ money (particularly

foreigners with unpronounceable names), find they’re unable to buy entry to the

most exclusive clubs and homes of England (even when they’re seriously rich).

Many Britons are obsessed with class and for some, maintaining or improving their

position on the social ladder is a full-time occupation (the ultimate aim being to

acquire a knighthood or peerage). The rest of us pretend we’re a ‘better’ class

than we actually are, with the exception of a few politicians who are busy trying to

live down their privileged past in order to court popularity with the

33

underprivileged masses.

The UK has been uncharitably described (with a hint of truth) as a society

based on privilege, inherited wealth and contacts. Class is also what divides the

bosses from the workers in the UK and the class struggle is at the root of many

industrial disputes. It has certainly reignited over the past couple of years. A

blue-collar (manual) worker must never accept a position that elevates him to the

ranks of the lower middle class (a white-collar job), otherwise his workmates will

no longer speak to him and he will be banned from the local working men’s club.

(As a consolation he may be accepted as a member at the Conservative club).

Similarly, middle-class management must never concede an inch to the workers

and, most importantly, must never have direct discussions with them about

anything, particularly pay rises or a reduction in working hours.

British Food

One thing that would probably cause a strike in any country is British food,

particularly in most company canteens and restaurants, where everything is served

with chips or ice-cream. Of course, British food isn’t always as bad as it’s

painted by foreigners. (What can people who eat anything that crawls, jumps,

swims or flies, possibly know about real food?). While it’s true that British food is

often bland, may look terrible and can make you sick, for most people it’s just a

matter of getting used to it. (What’s wrong with a diet of brown sauce, chips,

biscuits and tea, anyway?). After all, it’s usually necessary to become acclimatised

to the food in most foreign countries.

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To compensate for their deficiencies in the kitchen, the British are famous for

their love of wine (or anything alcoholic) and are among the world’s foremost

(self-appointed) experts on the character and qualities of good wine, although

they’re often better talkers than drinkers. The secret of dining in the UK is to

drink a lot as, when you’re drunk, most food tastes okay.

Socializing

You may sometimes get the impression that the British are an unfriendly lot, as

your neighbours won’t always say hello and probably won’t drop by or invite

you to their home for a cup of tea. (If they offer coffee, invent an urgent

appointment!). As an outsider, it may be left to you to make the first move,

although if you drop by uninvited, your neighbours may think that you’re being

pushy and just trying to sneak a look at their home. Northerners are generally

friendly and warm-hearted, particularly when compared with the detached and

aloof southerners who won’t usually give you the time of day. If your southern

neighbour does condescend to speak to you, he’s likely to greet you with the

ritual “How are you?” This doesn’t, of course, mean “How are you feeling

mentally, physically or spiritually?”, but simply “Hello”. The questioner usually

couldn’t care less whether you’re fighting fit or on your death bed. The ritual

answer is (even if you’ve just had a heart and lung transplant) “Fine, thank you –

how are you?”

Dialects

35

It’s a common misconception among many foreigners that the British all

speak English. There are numerous accents and dialects, half of which are so thick

that you could be forgiven for thinking that people are conversing in an ancient

secret language. A Briton’s accent and choice of words is usually a dead giveaway

as to his upbringing.

Many Britons are prejudiced against all foreigners and the English are also

prejudiced against English from other regions, Irish, Scots, Welsh, Yanks,

Europeans, most other foreigners and anyone who speaks with a different (i.e.

lower class) accent. However, don’t be concerned, as British xenophobia always

refers to ‘the others’ and present company is usually excepted. The British, in

common with most other races, don’t have a lot of time for foreigners,

particularly rich tourists and foreigners who buy up all the best property, and who

should all stay at home. Most Britons’ image of foreigners is gleaned from the

stereotypes portrayed on television. For example, every Briton knows that all

Americans are millionaires with flash cars, murderers or policemen (or all three),

drive like maniacs and make love with their clothes on in full make-up. However,

it’s the Germans and Japanese who, despite providing us with reliable cars and

other things that work, remain the baddest of baddies and are still portrayed as

‘the enemy’ in weekly television (TV) reruns of World War II.

Understatements

The British are masters of the understatement and rarely rave about anything.

If they’re excited about something they sometimes enthuse “that’s nice” and,

36

on the rare occasion when they’re deliriously happy, they’ve been known to

exclaim “I say, that’s rather good”. On the other hand, if something disastrous

happens (such as their house burns down) it might be termed “a spot of bother”.

The end of the world will probably be pronounced “unfortunate” or, if there was

something particularly good on TV that evening, it may even be greeted as “a

jolly bad show” (the ultimate tragedy). The true character of the British is,

however, revealed when they’re at play, particularly when they’re engaged in

sport.

Queuing

The British have a passion for queuing (lining up) and appear to outsiders to

have endless patience – as you would expect from a nation that can endure a

five-day cricket match. The British queue everywhere for everything, including

football tickets, sales (when people queue for days or weeks), buses, trains, aircraft,

post offices, government offices, hospital beds. The other form of queue popular

in the UK is the traffic jam.

Queuing isn’t always a necessity, but simply a herd instinct that compels

people to huddle together (in winter it helps to keep warm), except of course when

travelling by public transport, when the rules are somewhat different. On public

transport you must never sit next to anyone when an empty seat is available and

you must spread yourself and your belongings over two or three seats and never

move for anyone. (The best way is to feign sleep with a belligerent expression on

your face — most people wouldn’t dare disturb you). You must avoid looking at

37

your fellow passengers at all costs (in case a stranger smiles at you), usually

achieved by staring fixedly at the back of a newspaper or out of the window.

Whatever you do, don’t open a window and let in any nasty fresh air, which will

cause a riot.

Money and Gambling

The main problem with the British economy (apart from the ineptitude of

British politicians) is that many Britons lack ambition. They certainly want

‘loadsamoney’, but would rather do almost anything than work for it (contrary

to the popularly held misconception that ‘hard work never did anyone any

harm’, the British know only too well that it can prove fatal). The British are

reluctant entrepreneurs and many succeed in their own business only when forced

into it.

Most people prefer to try their luck at gambling (rather than work) and will bet

on almost anything, including the national lottery, football pools, horse and

greyhound racing, bingo, casinos, names of royal babies or ships, public

appointments, election results and who the Prime Minister will sack next (or who

will resign) – you name it and someone will make a book on it. (One of the reasons

that gambling is so popular in Britain is that gambling debts are unenforceable in

law). However, the attitude to gambling is changing. Nowadays, someone who

wins a fortune on the lottery is unlikely to declare that it won’t change his life and

that he’ll be keeping his job as a 50 pounds a week farm labourer (instead he’ll

buy a villa in Spain, a yacht and a Ferrari). If the British injected as much energy

38

into work and business as they do into gambling, they might even be able to

compete with the Germans and Japanese.

The secret of life

The secret of life in the UK is to maintain a sense of humour (and carry a big

umbrella). Most Brits have a lively sense of humour and a keen sense of the

ridiculous, which helps make life in the UK bearable. (The worst insult is to accuse

someone of having no sense of humour). One of the things that endears the British

most to foreigners is their ability to poke fun at themselves (the British don’t take

themselves too seriously) and everyone else, as typified in TV programmes such as

Monty Python and Dead Ringers. Nothing escapes the barbs of the satirists: from

the Pope to the Prime Minister, the President of the US to the Royal Family,

everyone is lampooned with equal affection.

It’s often difficult for foreigners to understand British humour or to recognise

when someone is being serious or joking, although the subject at hand usually

offers a clue. Generally, the more earnest or solemn the topic, the more likely they

are to be joking. Amazingly, some foreigners think that the British have no sense of

humour, usually Americans who don’t understand our subtle way with words and

cannot understand real English anyway. Many foreigners believe the British are at

least a little eccentric and, at their worst, stark staring bonkers. (1776 words)

Vocabulary

39

Briton: [ 'britən ]

n. a native or inhabitant of Great Britain英国人

introspective: [ ,intrəu'spektiv ]

dj. given to examining own sensory and perceptual experiences反省的；内向的

arrogant: ['ærəɡənt]

adj. having or showing feelings of unwarranted importance out of overbearing

pride自大的，傲慢的

hypocritical: [ ,hipə'kritikl ]

adj. professing feelings or virtues one does not have虚伪的；伪善的

racist: ['resɪst]

n. a person with a prejudiced belief that one race is superior to others种族主义

者

royalist: [ 'rɔiəlist ]

n. an advocate of the principles of monarchy保皇主义者；保皇党人

40

hard-headed: [,ha:d'hedid]

adj. unreasonably rigid in the face of argument or entreaty or attack;

cool-headed; levelheaded头脑冷静的

a couch-potato: 电视迷

pragmatic: [præg'mætɪk]

adj. concerned with practical matters实际的；实用主义的

cynical: ['sɪnɪkl]

adj. believing the worst of human nature and motives; having a sneering

disbelief in愤世嫉俗的；冷嘲的

stuffy: ['stʌfi]

adj. excessively conventional and unimaginative and hence dull闷热的；古板的

disparate: ['dɪspərət]

adj. fundamentally different or distinct in quality or kind同的；不相干的

assort: [ə'sɔrt]

41

vt. keep company with; hang out with协调；交往

ethnic: ['ɛθnɪk]

adj. denoting or deriving from or distinctive of the ways of living built up by a

group of people种族的；人种的

echelons: ['ɛʃəlɑn]

n. a body of troops arranged in a line梯次编队；梯阵；阶层

reignited: [riːɪg'naɪt]

vt. ignite anew, as of something burning再次点燃；重新激起…；

elicit: [ɪ'lɪsɪt]

vt. call forth (emotions, feelings, and responses); deduce (a principle) or

construe (a meaning) 抽出，引出；引起

rave: [rev]

. talk in a noisy, excited, or declamatory manner 咆哮；胡言乱语；狂骂

entrepreneur: [,ɔntrəprə'nə:]

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n. someone who organizes a business venture and assumes the risk for it (工商)

企业家，实业家，承包人

eccentric: [ɪk'sɛntrɪk]

adj. conspicuously or grossly unconventional or unusual古怪的，反常的 n. a

person with an unusual or odd personality古怪的人

bonker:

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