性别歧视

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2024年3月5日发(作者：)

Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination, also known as sexual discrimination, is the

practice of letting a person's sex unfairly become a factor when deciding

who receives a job, promotion, or other employment benefit. It most often

affects women who feel they have been unfairly discriminated against in

favor of a man.

In addition to gender discrimination in hiring and other circumstances,

there is a particular form of sexual discrimination called sexual

harassment. This form of discrimination involves inappropriate words or

actions of a sexual nature directed at an employee by employees of the

opposite sex. To meet the criteria for harassment, the behavior in question

must be both unwanted and sexual in nature.

two main types of sexual harassment. "Quid pro quo," or "this for that,"

Since the social unrest of the 1960s, the federal government has been

actively involved in preventing gender discrimination in the workplace.

The most important law covering gender discrimination on the job is the

Civil Rights Act of 1964. It stated that it was unlawful for an employer to

"fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise

discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation,

terms, conditions, or privileges or employment, because of such

individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin."

Examples of gender discrimination or sexual harassment that would fall

under the scope of the act include:

An employee who alleges that his or her manager only promotes male

employees and keeps females in entry-level positions.

An employee who alleges that a manager or other person in power tells

jokes or makes statements that are demeaning, insulting, or offensive to

women.

A manager who makes it clear, either through his actions or words, that

he wants to have sexual relations with a female employee.

A manager who asks inappropriate and unnecessary questions about a

female employee's sex life.

A manager who touches his female employees in inappropriate ways

without consent.

thanks to the efforts of Representative Martha Griffiths and others, the

revised bill was passed into law.

During World War II, when many women worked at jobs traditionally

held by men while the men fought in the war, there had been an attempt

by the National War Labor Board to get companies to pay women the

same rate as men, but that attempt failed miserably.

The Equal Pay Act of 1963 was intended to end that discrepancy. The law

stated that "no employer… shall discriminate, within any establishment in

which such employees are employed, between employees on the basis of

sex by paying wages to employees in such establishment at a rate less

than the rate at which he pays wages to employees of the opposite sex in

such establishment for equal work on jobs the performance of which

requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed

under similar working conditions."

The Equal Pay Act officially gives women protection under the law in

regards to equal pay for equal work, but inequities still exist in almost

every employment sector.

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

To oversee the federal civil rights legislation, including the Equal Pay Act,

a separate administrative body was created as part of the Civil Rights Act

of 1964. -- EEOC

Steps Taken By Employers to End Gender Discrimination

To prevent gender discrimination or sexual harassment from occurring in

the workplace, more and more employers are adopting a zero tolerance

policy towards all acts of discrimination.

The Current State of Gender Discrimination

In addition to reverse discrimination cases, there have also been recent

instances of same-sex discrimination cases.

An example of same-sex harassment occurred in the case of Oncale v.

Sundowner Offshore Services. In that case, Joseph Oncale worked on an

offshore oil rig owned by Sundowner. Over a period of months after he

started working on the rig, Oncale alleged that he was a victim of

harassment when two male supervisors and a coworker repeatedly

subjected him to sexual assaults and threats of homosexual rape.

Sexism

Sexism, a term coined in the mid-20th century,[1] is the belief or attitude

that one gender or sex is inferior to, less competent, or less valuable than

the other. It can also refer to hatred of, or prejudice towards, either sex as

a whole (see misogyny and misandry), or the application of stereotypes of

masculinity in relation to men, or of femininity in relation to women. also

called male and female chauvinism

♀♂

The view that men are superior to women is a form of sexism. When

expressed by men, sexism against women may be called male chauvinism.

Related terms are misogyny, which implies a hatred of women, and

gynophobia, which refers to a fear of women or femininity.

The idea that men benefit from certain rights and privileges not available

to women is referred to as male privilege. The idea that women benefit

from certain rights and privileges not available to men is referred to as

female privilege.

The view that women are superior to men is another form of sexism, and

when expressed by a woman may be called female chauvinism or

misandry. The hatred of men is called misandry, while androphobia refers

to the fear of men or masculinity.

Education

Women in the past have been excluded from higher education. Recently

more women than men have entered postsecondary institutions.

Professions

Women have historically been excluded from participation in many

professions. When women have gained entry into a previously male

profession, they have faced many additional obstacles;

Mandatory military service

Many countries around the world make it mandatory for males to join the

military, but not females.

Transphobia refers to prejudice against transsexuality and transsexual or

transgender people, based on their personal gender identification (see

Phobia - terms indicating prejudice or class discrimination). The most

typical forms of sexism against transsexuals are how many

"women-only" and "men-only" events and organizations have been

criticized for rejecting trans women and trans men, respectively.

Sexual objectification

It is argued that sexual objectification is a form of sexism.

Internalized sexism

Around the world, many women have internalized the sexist messages

that are present in their societies and cultures. In many cultures women

are socialized according to strong patriarchal values, they are brought up

to take their state of subordination to men as normal. The most common

examples include the widespread belief among women that domestic

violence is justified 、 the belief among women that a woman is

responsible if she is sexually assaulted.

Language studies have concluded that language "discrimination is usually

covert and difficult to be noticed without conscious awareness."

Specific examples of sexist language are numerous, and include the use

of the word "man" to represent the entire human most common

use of sexist language is revealed in this sentence: "Anyone can earn a

college degree if he really works at it." There have been sexist terms for

many occupations, such as Policeman, Fireman, Businessman, Repairman

etc. The use of these terms places specific images and ideas in people's

heads that these occupations were only for men. Another form of sexist

language is the use of "Mrs." and "Miss" for married and unmarried

women respectively.

Occupational sexism refers to any discriminatory practices, statements,

actions, etc. based on a person's sex that are present or occur in a place of

employment.

Gender wage gap=Income disparity

Women are less likely to negotiate raises, and when they do negotiate,

they are less likely to receive them.

Perhaps because women are less valuable to customers than men, women

are more likely to work part-time, to take more time off for their children,

and join lower status professions.

Sexual discrimination can arise in different contexts. For instance an

employee may be discriminated against by being asked discriminatory

questions during a job interview, or because an employer did not hire,

promote or wrongfully terminated an employee based on his or her

gender, or employers pay unequally based on gender. In an educational

setting there could be claims that a student was excluded from an

educational institution, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or

scholarship on account of his or her gender. In the housing setting there

could be claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house,

contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on his or her gender.

The term "glass ceiling" is used to describe a perceived barrier to

advancement in employment and government based on discrimination,

especially sex discrimination.

Transgendered individuals, both male to female and female to male, often

experience problems which often lead to dismissals, underachievement,

difficulty in finding a job, social isolation, and, occasionally, violent

attacks against them.

性别歧视主义

性别歧视主义(sexism)一般是指基于他人的性别差异而非他人优缺

点所造成的厌恶或是歧视，但也可用来指称任何因为性别所造成的差别待遇。

性别歧视主义一般是指以下几种信念或态度：相信某一种性别比其他种性别更优越的信念。 相信一个人必定属于男性或女性的信念。

指称憎恨男性（男性贬抑）或憎恨女性（女性贬抑）的态度。

性别歧视主义可粗略的视为本质主义的产物。本质主义者坚持可以根据个体所属群体之特征理解或判断该个体，而性别歧视主义者则是认为可依照个体所属的性别群体（男性或女性）来理解或判断该个体。这样的观点假定了所有的人都可以清楚地被划分成“男性”或“女性”，而忽略了某些同时拥有两性特质的跨性别者的存在。此外，这种观点也因群体中的同质性，而忽略了群体中的个别差异。在很多国家中，某些特定的性别歧视是违法的，不过几乎所有国家都有立法保障某几种性别群体的权利。

性别歧视主义可以分成三个部份来看：对女性的性别歧视主义、对男性的性别歧视主义以及对跨性别者的性别歧视主义。

对女性的性别歧视主义：性别歧视主义作用于女性的极端形式就是女性贬抑。由于作用于女性的性别歧视主义最先被广泛的认识，故成为“性别主义”一词最常指涉的范围。这种形式的性别歧视主义也常被称为男性沙文主义，但沙文主义事实上是个涵义更广泛的词，指的是对于竞争性团体的不合理且极端的憎恨与敌意。另一个稍有关系的名词是“恐女主义”(gynophobia)，指的是对女性或是女性气质的恐惧。

历史上，在许多父系社会中，女性被视为“较软弱的一群”。“矛盾的

性别歧视主义”(ambivalent sexism)指的是对于女性的憎恶态度及基于施舍的仁慈态度的综合，这种矛盾的文化态度显示在女性较低的社会地位以及男性对女性角色(妻子、母亲、情人)的依赖上。女权运动透过提倡女性权利(像是法律平等权、参政权、受教权、工作权以及对于身体的自主权)来反对性别歧视主义。

对男性的性别歧视主义：性别歧视主义作用于男性的极端形式就是男性贬抑(misandry，指的是对男性的厌恶甚至是憎恨)。对男性的性别歧视主义也被称作“反向性别歧视主义”。另一个稍有关系的名词是“恐男症”(androphobia)，指的是对男性或男性气质的恐惧。虽说认为女性比男性更优秀的观点也是性别歧视，但公共论述一直到最近几年才注意到这种“反向性别歧视主义”。

本文标签： 女性男性主义性别贬抑